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ISC Class XII Board Exam 2014 : Psychology (Model Answers, Marking Scheme & Examiner Comments)

27 pages, 40 questions, 22 questions with responses, 27 total responses,

ISC 12th
Indian School Certificate Examination (ISC), New Delhi

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PSYCHOLOGY A. STATISTICS AT A GLANCE Total number of students taking the examination Highest marks obtained Lowest marks obtained Mean marks obtained 1,815 100 12 76.16 Percentage of candidates according to marks obtained Mark Range 21-40 41-60 0-20 Number of candidates Percentage of candidates Cumulative Number Cumulative Percentage 61-80 81-100 1 6 369 685 754 0.06 1 0.06 0.33 7 0.39 20.33 376 20.72 37.74 1061 58.46 41.54 1815 100 76 B. ANALYSIS OF PERFORMANCE PART I (20 Marks) Answer all questions. Question 1 [20] Answer briefly all the questions (i) to (xx): (i) Define personality according to Cattell. (ii) What is meant by intelligence? (iii) Explain the term fully functioning persons. (iv) Name one Culture fair test of intelligence. (v) Who put forward the concept of pre-conventional morality? (vi) Explain the term surface traits. (vii) What is meant by reaction formation? (viii) Explain the term discrimination in relation to prejudice. (ix) Give an example of a positive event which acts as a stressor. (x) What is meant by the term substance abuse? (xi) Give the full form of DSM IV. (xii) What is meant by the term fixation? (xiii) Explain the term dream analysis as one of the features in psychodynamic therapy. (xiv) What is meant by leadership skill? (xv) Name one Post Freudian psychologist. (xvi) Explain the term development. (xvii) Give one symptom of Paranoid Schizophrenia. (xviii) Mention one characteristic of Type A personality of an individual. (xix) What is meant by minor hassles of everyday life? (xx) Explain the term abnormal behaviour. Comments of Examiners (i) (ii) (iii) Most of the candidates were not able to give the exact definition of personality according to Cattell. Key word like, permits prediction were missing in the answer. Majority of the candidates explained the term intelligence satisfactorily. Most of the candidates answered this question correctly. A few confused it with Maslow s self-actualized person. 77 Suggestions for teachers All the three definitions of personality need to be taught. Ask students to focus on key words while writing the answer. The meaning of reaction formation, its definition with example must be made clear. (iv) Majority of the candidates answered this question quit well. (v) Candidates were able to attempt this question correctly. (vi) The answers given by many candidates were vague and words were missed out. Some candidates confused it with source traits. (vii) Some candidates could not define reaction formation properly. Others confused it with displacement . (viii) A number of candidates were unable to describe the relation of discrimination to prejudice . Candidates were confused between action and thoughts . (ix) Majority of the candidates answered this question quite well. (x) While most of the candidates answered this question correctly, a few mistook substance abuse as other forms of mental and physical abuse. (xi) Several candidate wrote incorrect or incomplete full forms. (xii) Fixation was inadequately explained by many candidates. Candidates were unable to give the key words like libido or psychic energy . (xiii) Majority of the candidates answered this question well. (xiv) Candidates were able to answer this part correctly. (xv) A few candidates were unable to give the name of one post Freudian psychologist. (xvi) Development was not explained completely by a number of candidates - some aspect of the definition was missing. Several candidates confused growth and development . (xvii) Majority of the candidates answered this part well. (xviii) Candidates were able to attempt this part correctly. (xix) This question was attempted well by candidates. (xx) Most of the candidates answered this question satisfactorily. A few did not mention deviation from the normal behaviour . 78 Explain to students how prejudice gives rise to discrimination, with the help of examples. Explain the several types of substance abuse. Keywords like, non-medical purpose , repeated use , adverse effects , maladaptive behaviour should be stressed upon. Full forms of all tests and correct spellings of names of all psychologists mentioned in the syllabus must be taught by the teacher. Candidates must be explained that the fixation can happen due to under or over gratification of urges at a particular stage of psychosexual development, leading to blockage of excessive psychic energy. Analysing one s dream as part of psycho dynamic therapy must be explained clearly to bring forth facts from the unconscious. One should also focus on the keywords such as hidden desires . The concept of post Freudian needs to be emphasised and classified. While discussing development life span view must be given. Physical, cognitive and psychological aspects of development must be mentioned. The difference between growth and development must be explained. MARKING SCHEME Question 1. (i) According to Cattell, personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation. (ii) Intelligence is the global capacity to understand the world, think rationally and use available resources effectively when faced with challenges. (iii) In Roger s theory, psychologically healthy persons who live life to the fullest. (iv) Cattell s Culture Fair Test / Raven s Progressive Matrices, Army or Army . (v) Kohlberg (vi) Surface traits are able to be recognized by our manifestation of behaviour like curiosity, dependability, and tactfulness. (vii) Reaction formation refers to behaving in a way that is opposite to behaviour feelings, or thoughts that are considered unacceptable/ defence mechanism (viii) Discrimination is the behavioural manifestation of prejudice. Members of a particular community, class or group are treated in a particular way, i.e. either positively or negatively because of belonging to a particular community, class, gender or caste and not because of any other genuine or personal factors. (ix) Positive events which act as a stressor would be such as getting married or receiving an unexpected job promotion / pleasant outcome/ rewarding experience (x) A maladaptive pattern of substance use that results in repeated, significant adverse effects and maladaptive behaviours; failure to meet the obligations at work, in school or at home, repeated use of psychoactive substance, in hazardous ways, recurrent legal problems related to the substance and continued use of the substance despite its negative effect on social relationships/ alter ones senses, giving a high (xi) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder IV. (xii) Fixation is excessive investment of psychic energy in a particular stage of psychosexual development. This results in various types of psychological disorders./ libido (xiii) Dream analysis is the analysis of dream content to obtain information about the source of a person s emotional problems; often used in psycho-analysis/ psychotherapy. Freud believed that it is another pathway to our unconscious. (xiv) Leadership skills is the skill to influence, support and motivate others to work enthusiastically or effectively towards achieving the objectives or goal. (xv) Erik Erikson, Karen Horney, Adler, Jung. (xvi) The sequence of changes over the full life span of an organisation. One aspect is physical development which is strongly influenced by genetic tendencies. The other is psychological development which is much more influenced by environmental factors. Development refers to the development both during the prenatal and postnatal. Development refers to qualitative changes. 79 Delusions of persecution, reference, bodily change or jealousy. Hallucinatory voices that threaten the patient or give commands or auditory hallucinations without verbal form such as whistling, humming or laughing. Hallucinations of smell or taste or of sexual or other bodily sensations. Visual hallucinations may occur but are rarely predominant. Incoherent speech. (xviii) (xvii) Marked loosening of associations Flat or grossly inappropriate affect. Characteristics of a type A personality (Any one) Always in a hurry, eat fast, walks and talks fast Restless when awaiting Highly competitive, amplification Very precise and demand perfection Ambitious, sets own goals, takes work very seriously. Workaholic. Tries to do more than one thing at a time. Aggressive (Any one) (xix) Annoying minor events of everyday life that cumulatively can affect psychological well-being. (xx) Abnormal behaviour means, behaviour which deviates from what is considered normal, usually refers to maladaptive behaviours. PART II (50 Marks) SECTION A Answer any two questions. Question 2 (a) Explain in detail, the GATB. [5] (b) Give an account of Thurstone s Theory of Primary Mental Abilities. [5] Comments of Examiners (a) Most of the candidates named the subtests, but very few gave the correct explanation of the correct subtests. (b) Majority of the candidates answered this question well. In a few cases, some factors were missing. 80 Suggestions for teachers Explain to students the purpose of the test and the administration details of the test. All the nine factors should be taught with full explanation. MARKING SCHEME Question 2. (a) The aptitudes that are measured by the General Aptitude Test Battery are as follows: G General Learning Ability: The ability to catch on or understand instructions and underlying principles, the ability to reason and make judgements. Closely related to doing well in school. V Verbal aptitude: The ability to understand the meaning of words and to use them effectively. The ability to understand relationships between words and to understand the meaning of whole sentences and paragraphs. N- Numerical Aptitude: accurately. S- Spatial Aptitude: The ability to think visually of geometric forms and to comprehend the two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional objects. The ability to recognize the relationships, resulting from the movement of objects in space. P-Form Perception: The ability to perceive pertinent details in objects or in pictorial or graphic material. Ability to make visual comparisons and discriminations and see slight differences in shapes and shading of figures and widths and lengths of lines. Q-Clerical Perception: The ability to perceive detail in verbal or tabular material. Ability to observe differences in copy, to proofread words and numbers and to avoid perceptual errors in arithmetic computation. K- Motor Co-ordination: The ability to coordinate eyes and hands or fingers rapidly and accurately in making precise movements with speed. Ability to make movement response accurately and swiftly. F- Finger Dexterity: The ability to move fingers and manipulate small objects with fingers, rapidly or accurately. The ability to perform arithmetic operations quickly and (b) M- Manual Dexterity: The ability to move hands easily and skilfully. Ability to work with hands in placing and turning motions Group Factor Theory: For the factors not common to all of the intellectual abilities, but common to certain activities comprising a group, the term group factor was suggested. Prominent among the propagators of this theory is L.L. Thurstone an American psychologist. While working on a test of primary mental abilities, he came to the conclusion that certain mental operations have in common a primary factor which gives them psychological and functional unity and which differentiates them from other mental operations. These mental operations constitute a group factor. So, there are a number of groups of mental abilities each of which has its own primary factor. Thurstone and his associates have differentiated nine such factors. They are: 1) Verbal factor (V): concerns comprehension of verbal relations, words and ideas. 2) Spatial factor (S) involved in any task which the subject manipulates an object imaginatively in space. 3) Numerical factor (N): ability to do numerical calculations, rapidly and accurately. 4) Memory factor (M): involves the ability to memorize quickly. 81 5) Word Fluency Factor (W): involved whenever the subject is asked to think of the isolated words at a rapid rate. 6) Inductive reasoning factor (RI): ability to draw inferences or conclusions on the basis of specific instances. 7) Deductive reasoning factor (RD): ability to make use of generalized results. 8) Perceptual factor (P): ability to perceive objects accurately. 9) Problem-solving ability factor (PS): ability to solve problems with independent efforts. The weakest link in the group factor theory was that it discarded the concept of common factor. It did not take Thurstone very long to realise his mistake and to reveal a general factor in addition to group factors. Question 3 (a) Explain the Social Cognition Theory of Personality, according to Bandura. [5] (b) Describe the TAT as a means to measure personality. [5] Comments of Examiners (a) This question was well answered by most of the candidates. A few however focused on the observational parts of behavioural learning and personality, overlooking self-system, self-reinforcement and self-efficacy. (b) This question was well attempted by most candidates. In a few cases, details were found to be missing i.e. names of the test constructors, needs and the details of scoring. Moreover, the concept of projection or projective hypothesis was poorly explained by some candidates. Suggestion for teachers All information regarding the tests must be taught, such as: (i) Test details - numbers of the cards items subtests name/type of items (if any). (ii) Names of the test constructor. (iii) Test basis-if any theory. (iv) Administrator detailsinstruction, time etc. (v) Scoring details-parameters. (vi)Purpose of the test. MARKING SCHEME Question 3. (a) Modern View of Personality: In his social cognitive theory, Bandura places great emphasis on what he terms the self-system the cognitive process by which a person perceives, evaluates and regulates his or her own behaviour so that it is appropriate in a given situation. Reflecting the emphasis on cognition in modern psychology, Bandura calls attention about the consequences of their actions, anticipate future events and establish goals and plans. They engage in self reinforcement, patting themselves when they attain their goals. Another important feature of Bandura s theory is its emphasis on observational learning, a form of learning in which individuals acquire both information and new forms of behaviour through observing others. 82 Bandura s theory that has received most attention recent research is his concept of selfefficacy an individual s belief that he or she can perform some behaviour or task successfully. Self-efficacy has been found to play a role in success on many tasks, (e.g. Maurer and Pierce 1998) in health. Generalized beliefs about their task related capabilities can be viewed as important aspects of personality. (b) TAT or Thematic Appreciation Test: The test consisting of perception of a certain picture in a Thematic manner (revealing imaginative themes) is called TAT or Thematic Apperception Test. This test was developed by Murray and Morgan. Test material and administration: It consists of 30 pictures + blank card which portray human beings in a variety of actual life situations. Ten of these cards are meant for males, 10 for females and 10 for both. In this way, the maximum number of pictures used with any subject is 20. The test is usually administered in two sessions, using 10 pictures in each session. The pictures are presented one at a time. They are vague and indefinite. The subject is told clearly that this is a test of creative imagination and that there is no right and wrong response. He has to make up a story for each of the pictures presented to him, within not a fixed time period. He has to take care of the following aspects while knitting the story: 1) What is going on in the picture? 2) What has led to this scene? 3) What would happen in such a situation? 4) What are the characters thinking and feeling? In making up the stories, the subject unconsciously projects so many characteristics of his personality. There is no time to think. Therefore, the stories express his own life natural desires, likes and dislikes, ambitions, emotions, sentiments, etc. Its special value resides in its power of exploring the underlying hidden drives, complexes and conflicts of the personality. An expert examiner can know much about the personality of his subject by carefully interpreting the given responses. Scoring and interpretation: Originally, Murray analysed the contents of the stories according to need and presses/obstacle (the need of the hero and the environmental forces to which he is exposed). Today, this way of interpretation is not generally followed. Nowadays, the system of scoring and interpretation takes account of the following: 1) Hero of the story what type of personality he has? 2) Theme of the story What is the nature of the theme or plot used in making the story? 3) The style of the story Length of the story, language used, direct or indirect expression, forced or poor expression, organisation of the contents, originality and creativity, etc. 4) The content of the story What interests, sentiments, attitudes they depict. In which manner (reality or fantasy) the behaviour has been expressed. What inner-state of the mind, the story reveals. 83 5) Test situation as a whole The subject s reaction to be listed as a whole. 6) Particular emphasis or omissions The omission, addition, distortion and attention to particular details. 7) Subject s attitude towards authority and sex. 8) Outcome. Conclusion of the story happy, unhappy, comedy, etc. As a whole, the recurring themes and features contribute more than a single response towards interpretation. Moreover, the global view of one s personality should be based on the responses of all the 20 pictures shown to the subject. There are so many chances of misinterpreting the stories contents by an immature examiner. Therefore, the future of TAT hangs on the possibility of perfecting the interpreter more than in perfecting the material. He should be given full opportunity for acquiring essential knowledge and training for this purpose. Question 4 (a) Describe the Costa and McCrae s Five Factor Model of personality. [5] Name and explain two characteristics each of the different levels of below average (b) [5] intelligence. Comments of Examiners (a) The five dimensions were written incompletely by Suggestions for teachers many candidates. Some candidates were not clear All the five traits must be fully about the concept of the dimension. Most of the explained. The teacher should explanations did not cover the spectrum of personality explain the concept of the dimensions. dimension i.e. from one end to the (b) Majority of candidates answered this question well. other end. A few candidates however missed out the required Candidates must be taught the details of the characteristics among the different detailed explanation of the levels of levels of intelligence. intelligence with correct names. MARKING SCHEME Question 4. (a) The basic dimensions of personality: There are five key or central dimensions of personality (e.g. Costa and McCrae, 1994; Zuckerman, 1994) These are sometimes labelled the big five, and they can be described as follows: 1) Extraversion: A dimension ranging from energetic, enthusiastic, sociable, and talkative at one end to retiring, sober, reserved, silent, and cautious at the other. 2) Agreeableness: A dimension ranging from good-natured, cooperative, trusting and helpful at one end to irritable, suspicious, and uncooperative at the other. 3) Conscientiousness: A dimension ranging from well-organized, careful self-discipline responsible and precise at one end to disorganised, impulsive careless and undependable at the other. 84 (b) 4) Emotional Stability: (sometimes labelled neuroticism): A dimension ranging from poised, calm, composed and not hypochondriacal at one end to nervous, Anxious, high-strung hypochondriacal at the other. 5) Openness to experience: A dimension ranging from imaginative, witty, and having broad interests at one end to down-to-earth, simple, and having narrow interests at the other. The consideration of deficiency in adaptive behaviour along with the very low scores on an intelligence test resulted in the development of an altogether new classification of sub-normality. The terms Borderlines moron, imbecile, or idiot are now completely avoided for determining the level of retardation. Mild retardation: A majority of approximately 85 per cent of the retarded belongs to this category. They are found to possess the following main characteristics: In adult life, these individuals attain intellectual levels comparable to that of the average ten years old child. Their social adjustment may be compared with that of the adolescent. Here too they lack the innovative and vigorous nature of normal adolescents. They show signs of delayed development early in life and learn to walk, talk, feed and toilet themselves a year later than the average. They may be identified in schools as slow learners and are frequently required to repeat early grades. Speech disturbances are common among them. In comparison with normal individuals, the mildly retarded exhibit immature behaviour, have poor control over their impulses, lack judgment and fail to anticipate the consequence of their actions. Their sexual behaviour and adjustment, in spite of the normal sexual development and fertility, unpredictable and leads to a variety of problems and difficulties. The mildly retarded individuals generally do not show any organic pathology and require little supervision. They are considered to be educable. With early diagnosis, parental assistance and aid of special classes, they can be expected to reach a reasonable degree of educational achievement and to make an adequate social and economic adjustment in the community. (Any two) Moderate mental retardation: About 10 per cent of the total mentally retarded belong to this category. Their main characteristics may be summarized as below: In adult life, they attain intellectual level similar to that of the average six year old. Physically they appear clumsy, suffer from lack of motor co-ordination and present an affable, dull and somewhat dubious personality. As a result of their inadequate development and deficient capacities and abilities, they are regarded as trainable instead of being educable, like the mildly retarded. From early infancy or childhood, they show signs of retardation in almost all areas of development, and though they manage to speak, their rate of learning is too slow. They are unable to do any work that requires initiative, originality, abstract thinking, memory or consistent attention and cannot be expected to acquire the basic skills of reading and writing. However, with early diagnosis, parental help and adequate training and support, most of the moderately retarded can achieve considerable independence in all spheres of life. 85 Nevertheless, they require constant supervision and support and need institutionalization depending on their general level of adaptive behaviour. (Any two) Severe mental retardation: Nearly 3.5 percent of the total retarded individuals mostly children and adolescents belong to this category. Their main characteristics may be summarised as below: They never attain an intellectual level greater than that of the average four year old child. The mortality rate due to high susceptibility to disease is quite high among these individuals. They are grossly retarded in development from birth or infancy onward and show severe motor and speech retardation. Sensory defects and motor handicaps are common. The majority of them display relatively little interest in their surroundings and many of them never master even the necessary skills and functions like feeding and dressing themselves, or bladder and bowel control. The severe mental retardates are neither educable, nor trainable and the majority of them remain dependent on others throughout their lives. They need care and supervision of others with a great need for institutionalization. They may profit with proper care, timely treatment and specialized training for managing their own physical well-being and doing manual labour. Profound mental retardation: (Any two) This group makes 1.5 percent of the total mentally retarded population. It is characterised by the most severe symptoms of mental retardation as given below: The individuals belonging to this category never attain in adult life an intellectual level greater than that of an average 2 year old child. They are severely deficient both in their intellectual capacities and adaptive behaviour. The symptoms associated with them are retarded growth, physical deformities, pathology of the central nervous system, autism, severe speech disturbances, motor incoordination, deafness and convulsive seizures. They are unable to protect themselves from common dangers and are unable to manage their own affairs and satisfy their physical needs. Their life span, as a result of their low resistance is too short. Such individuals are completely dependent on others and need the care and supervision given to an infant. Essentially, they need to be institutionalized as their condition deteriorates on account of the biased attitude of the parents and stressful demands of their environment SECTION B Answer any three questions. Question 5 (a) Describe Piaget s concrete stage of cognitive development during childhood. (b) Explain delinquency as a major concern during adolescence. 86 [5] [5] Comments of Examiners (a) A number of candidates did not give all the characteristics of the concrete stage. A few candidates confused it with the formal stage of development. (b) Some candidates failed to understand the term delinquency ; others did not define it appropriately. In several cases, out of the several causes, only one or two causes like, environmental cause or social cause were mentioned. Suggestions for teachers Each cognitive development stage is quite distinct and should be explained clearly. Key words of each stage, must be included in the explanation. Causes of delinquency among adolescents must be explained clearly to students. MARKING SCHEME Question 5. (a) Cognitive Advances: Children in the age of concrete operations can perform many tasks at a much higher level than what they could in the preoperational stage. They have a better understanding of spatial concepts, of causality, of categorization, of inductive and deductive reasoning and of conservation. Space and Causality: Children in the stage of concrete operations can better understand spatial relationships. They have a clear idea of how far it is from one place to another and how long it will take to get there, and they can more easily remember the route and the landmarks along the way. Experience plays a role in this development, a child who walks to school becomes more familiar with the neighbourhood outside the home. The abilities to use maps and models and to communicate spatial information improve with age. Although, 6 year olds can search for and find hidden objects, they usually do not give clear directions for finding the same objects perhaps, because they lack the appropriate vocabulary or do not realize what information the other person needs. Judgements about cause and effect also improve during middle childhood. When 5 to 12 year olds were asked to predict how levers and balance scales would perform with varying numbers and weights of objects placed at varying distances from the centre, the older children gave more correct answers than the younger children. Categorization: The ability to categorize helps children to think logically. Categorization includes such sophisticated abilities as seriation, transitive inference, and class inclusion. Children show that they understand seriation when they can arrange objects in a series according to one or more dimensions, such as weight (light to heaviest) or colour (lightest to darkest). Transitive inference: is the ability to recognize a relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship between each of them and a third object. Class inclusion: is the ability to see the relationship between a whole and its parts. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning: According to Piaget, children in the stage of concrete operations use inductive reasoning. Starting with observations about particular members of a 87 class of people, animals, objects, or events, they then draw general conclusions about the class as whole. Inductive conclusions must be tentative because it is always possible to come across new information (a dog that does not bark) that does not support the conclusion. Deductive reasoning: which Piaget believed does not develop until adolescence starts with a general statement (premise) about a class and applies it to particular members of the class. If the premise is true of the whole class, and the reasoning is sound, then the conclusion must be true. Conservation: In solving various types of conservation problems, children in the stage of concrete operations can work out the answers in their heads; they do not have to measure or weigh the objects. Option: Conservation Mastery Logical thought Reversibility/Mastery two way Seriation Relational Terms dark, darker, soft, softer (b) Delinquency: A delinquent violates law, is habitually disobedient, uncontrolled by parents and guardians, habitual absentees in school or colleges. He also endangers his morality and health and also poses danger for others in the society. Delinquents are very impulsive and indulge in acts at the spur of the moment. They are socially insensitive and lack conscience and guilty feeling.(Below 18 years) Causes of delinquency: 1) Hereditary factor: The early researches held heredity responsible for delinquency. It can be concluded that delinquency is not inherited and therefore it is unjustified to blame heredity for delinquent behaviour.(Biological) 2) Constitutional or psychological factors: Defective constitution or glandular systems were also thought to be the cause of delinquent behaviour. Udai Shanker observes that poor health, short or too big stature or some deformity which give rise to feeling of inferiority, dispose one to more aggression, as a compensatory reaction for his inadequacies. Consequently, this leads to delinquent behaviour. (psychological) 3) Intelligence factor: While earlier writers like Lombroso and Goddard emphasize that the most important cause of delinquency and crime is low grade mentality, sometimes it is argued on the basis of the statistics that since the majority among the delinquents possess low intelligence, defective intelligence, therefore causes delinquency. But this conclusion is not well founded. Moreover, defective intelligence may lead to delinquency in one situation and may be a barrier to it in another situation. Hence, low intelligence alone cannot be held responsible for delinquent behaviour. (Cognitive). 4) Environmental and social factors: It has been proved that delinquent behaviour is a learned reaction. Delinquents do not inherit delinquent characters from their parents or 88 ancestors but are made so by the uncongenial environment and social conditions. Udai Shanker observes that delinquency is not inherited. It is the product of social economic conditions and is essentially a coefficient of the friction between the individual and the community. The most important causes of antisocial behaviour are environmental and sociological in character. It is therefore the uncongenial environment of the family, school, neighbourhood and society which should be blamed for the delinquent behaviour of the child since he picks up delinquent trait in such situations. (Socio Cultural). 5) Substance abuse risk factors: First, juveniles are using more powerful drugs today than was the case as recently as 10 years ago. Secondly, the age at which some juveniles begin using drugs is younger. Children in elementary schools are found to be using powerful illegal drugs. The use of these illegal substances or the use of legal substances illegally motivates young people to commit crimes to obtain money for drugs. Additionally, juveniles are far more likely to engage in destructive, harmful and illegal activities when using drugs. (Any three) Prevention: Parental education, child company s substituting environment, rectifying school education and environment, counselling and vocational guidance. (Briefly explain) Characteristics: 1. Theft 2. Gambling 3. Cheating 4. Pick and Pocketing 5. Murder 6. Robbery 7. Destruction of property 8. Violence and assault 9. Intoxication 10. Abduction 11. Kidnapping 12. Sexual offences Question 6 (a) Explain the effect of stress on the performance of an individual. [5] (b) Discuss how relaxation training and yoga act as effective strategies of handling stress. [5] 89 Comments of Examiners (a) Important details such as the following were found to be missing in many answers: inverted U shaped relationship, eustress and distress, decline in performance is dependent on familiarity of the task and complexity of the task, negative emotions/mood generated by long term stress also decline performance, chronic stress also produces fatigue which dampens performance. (b) A few candidates were not clear about the relaxation training aspect and yoga was mentioned very sketchily. Suggestions for teachers Candidates must be taught the relationship between stress and performance. Various factors (complexity, familiarity) that impact the relationship must be incorporated in the explanation. Teachers must discuss the different types of asanas and relaxation training technique with names in detail. MARKING SCHEME Question 6. (a) Stress and Task Performance: Psychologists once believed that stress actually improves performance on a wide range of tasks. They held that the relationship between stress and task performance takes the form of an upside-down U: at first, performance improves as stress increases, presumably because the stress is arousing or energizing. Beyond some point, though, stress becomes distracting, and performance actually drops. While this relationship may hold true under some conditions, growing evidence suggests that even low or moderate levels of stress can interfere with task performance. There are several reasons why this is so. First, even relatively mild stress can be distracting. People experiencing stress may focus on the unpleasant feelings and emotions it involves, rather than on the task at hand. Second, prolonged or repeated exposure to even mild levels of stress may exert harmful effects on health, and health problems may interfere with effective performance. Finally, a large body of research indicates that as arousal increases, task performance may rise at first, but that at some point it falls. The precise location of this turning, or inflection, point seems to depend to an important extent on the complexity of the task performed. The greater complexity, the lower the level of arousal at which the downturn in performance occurs. Together, these factors help explain why even moderate levels of stress may interfere with many types of performance. However, stress does not always produce adverse effects. For example, people sometimes do seem to rise to the occasion and turn in sterling performances at times when stress is intense. Perhaps, the most reasonable conclusion, then, is that although stress can interfere with task performance in many situations, its precise effects depend on many different factors, such as the complexity of the task being performed and personal characteristics of the individuals involved. (b) Technique for stress Reduction: (Effective Strategies) Physical exercise, sports and yoga, etc. are found immense value in preparing a person for relaxation. Apart from these well-known methods, there are some more techniques which are scientific and systematic in nature. One such procedure is deep muscle relaxation. This technique is based on the assumption that mental relaxation follows muscular relaxation. 90 Deep Muscle Relaxation: The Veda is taught to experience both tension and relaxation alternately in each and every group of muscles in the body. Experience of relaxation and appreciation of difference between tension and relaxation immensely helps the individual in maximising the feeling of calmness. It is also called progressive muscle relaxation because as the individual practices this technique, experience of relaxation increases. Biofeedback: Another procedure which is generally adopted for inducing relaxation through altering bodily reactions is bio-feedback. In this procedure, based on skin response (GSR), feedback on brain waves (EEG) and feedback on any other physiological parameter, the individual is made to study the internal relations to stress and relaxation. By giving the individual, feedback whether he/she is in a state of stress or relaxation, the individual can be made to alter the reaction in favour of relaxation, which he/she will have to maintain as much as possible. Visual or auditory feedback is given.The goal is always to keep the green light on when individual undergoes treatment for management of stress through bio-feedback. Yoga: Yoga is a way of life that promotes physical as well as psychological well-being. Yoga has 8 steps. The most important steps which can be ordinarily practise by us are given below: 1. Yama: practicing self-regulation. 2. Niyama: Observing behavioural norms. 3. Pranayama: Pranayama is an exercise meant to regulate breathing. It makes the respiratory system work its optimum thus ensuring proper supply of O2 to the blood and improving blood circulation. 4. Asanas: Asanas are the physical aspect of yoga in which postures are checked and modified as required for setting right the imbalance of inner functions which include both physical and physiological aspects of the human body system. Asanas have preventive, curative and promotive values. 5. Pratyachara: Means withdrawing the senses from the external objects and turn them inward. Yoga helps us to train our sense organs to remain quiet without outer stimulation. 6. Dharna: is focusing of mind on a particular object. 7. Dhyan: study contemplation or meditation. 8. Samadhi: Extreme level of Dhyana when one loses sense of time and place. Option: Yoga Relaxation Training and 3 other related to relaxation training. 1. Exercise 2. Biofeedback 3. Self-Rejuvenation 4. Meditation 5. Progressive muscular Relaxation 91 6. Breathing exercise 7. Cue-controlled Relaxation 8. Quickening the mind and Body 9. Focusing 10. Grounding Technique 11. Healing the inner child Question 7 (a) Give two symptoms and two causes for each of the following personality disorders: (i) Anti-social (ii) [6] Avoidant (iii) Dependent (b) Explain two behavioural therapies each based on: (i) Classical conditioning. (ii) [4] Operant conditioning. Comments of Examiners (a) This question was well attempted by most of the candidates. However, a few candidates gave the characteristics collectively or repeated the same for all the types. (b) (i) Candidates were able to answer this question quite well. (ii) Several candidates explained token economies quite well but the other therapies based on operant conditioning were not explained properly. Suggestions for teachers Focus equally on the casual factors and symptoms of each separately. Ask students to explain the classical conditioning therapies in detail with practical examples. Candidates should be taught functional analysis of behaviour identifying positive and negative reinforcement. MARKING SCHEME Question 7. (a) (i) Antisocial Personality Disorder: Symptoms: They lack of conforming to laws and repeatedly commit crimes. Repeatedly deceitful in relationships 92 Failure to think or plan ahead Tendency of irritability, anger and aggression Disregard for personal safety or safety for others Persistent lack of taking responsibility Lack of guilt for any wrong activity. (any two) Causes: Studies of adopted children indicate that both genetic and environmental factors influence the development of this disorder. Both biological and adopted children of people diagnosed with the disorder have an increased risk of developing it. Children born to parents diagnosed with antisocial personality but adopted into other families resemble their biological more than their adoptive parent. Researcher have linked antisocial personality disorder to childhood physical or sexual abuse, some undiagnosed neurological disorders and low IQ. But, as with other personality disorders, no one has defined any specific cause or causes of antisocial personality disorder. Persons diagnosed with antisocial personality also have an increased incidence of somatisation and substance-related disorders. (ii) Avoidant: Symptoms: Extreme shyness Sensitivity to criticism and rejection Low self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy A desire for closeness with others but difficulty in forming relationships with people outside of immediate family Avoidance of social situations, including those related to school or work. Person avoids occupational activities Person is reluctant to participate in any social involvement. Person is preoccupied with criticized or rejected. (any two) Causes: The causes of avoidant personality disorder is not clearly defined and may be influenced by a combination of social, genetic and biological factors. Avoidant personality traits typically appear in childhood, with signs of excessive shyness and fear when the child confronts new people and situations. The characteristics are also developmentally appropriate emotions for children, however and do not necessarily mean that a pattern of avoidant personality disorder will continue into adulthood. Many persons diagnosed with avoidant personality disorder have had painful early experiences of chronic parental criticism and rejection. 93 The need to bond with the rejecting parents makes the avoidant person hungry for relationships but their longing gradually develops into a defensive shell of self-protection against repeated parental criticisms. (iii) Dependent Personality Disorder: Symptoms: Chronic and pervasive pattern of dependent, submissive, and needy behaviour. Seek out excessive advice, approval and encouragement. Sensitivity to criticism or rejection. Low self-confidence and self-esteem. An inability to make decisions without direction from others. Feelings of helplessness when alone. An inability to disagree with others. Extreme devastation when close relationships end and a need to immediately begin a new relationship. Difficulty in making everyday decisions. (any two) Causes: It is commonly thought that the development of dependence in these individuals is a result of over-involvement and intrusive behaviour by their primary caretakers. Families of those with dependent personality disorder are often do not express their emotions and are controlling; they demonstrate poorly defined relational roles within the family unit. (b) Individuals with dependent personality disorder often have been socially humiliated by others in their developmental years. They may carry significant doubts about their abilities to perform tasks, take on new responsibilities, and generally function independently of others. This reinforces their suspicious that they are incapable of living autonomously. Therapies based on classical conditioning: It is a process in which organisms learn that the occurrence of one stimulus will soon be followed by the occurrence of another. Behaviour therapists suggests that many problems are acquired in this manner. Stimuli that happen to be present when real danger occur may acquire the capacity to evoke intense fear because of this association. As a result, individuals experience intense fears in response to these conditional stimuli, even though they pose no threat to their well-being. To eliminate such reactions, behaviour therapists sometimes use the technique of flooding. This involves exposure to the feared stimuli, or to mental representations of them, under conditions in which the person with the phobias can t escape from them. This procedures encourage extinction of such fears, the phobias may soon fade away. Another technique based in part on principles of classical conditioning is known as systemic desensitization. In this, the individuals first learn how to induce a relaxed state in their own bodies - often by learning how to relax their muscles. Then while in a relaxed state, they are exposed to stimuli that elicit fear. 94 Another classical conditioning technique involving unpleasant stimulation is aversion therapy. Its objective is not to undo fear or revulsion but to induce such feelings, especially in relation to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviour. (Any two) Therapies Based on operant conditioning: Behaviour is often shaped by the consequences it produces; actions are repeated if they yield positive outcomes or if they permit individuals to avoid or escape from negative one. In contrast, actions that lead to negative results are suppressed. These basic principles of learning are incorporated in several forms of therapy based on operant conditioning. Therapies include the following steps: Clear identification of undesirable or maladaptive behaviours etc, outwardly shown by individuals. Identification of events that reinforce and maintain such responses. Efforts change the environment so that these maladaptive behaviours are no longer followed by reinforcement. Operant principles have sometimes been used in hospital settings Token economies. This is a form of behaviour therapy in which patients in hospital settings learn tokens they can exchange for various rewards by engaging in desirable forms of behaviour. Option: 1. Functional Analysis of Behaviour 2. Identifying +ve and ve reinforcers. 3. Extinction 4. Differential Reinforcers 5. Behavioural Contracting 6. Shaping 7. Time out Question 8 (a) Discuss how cognitive dissonance helps in changing our attitude. (b) Explain the concept of social learning, realistic competition and stereotyping as factors causing prejudice. Comments of Examiners (a) Majority of the candidates answered this question well. Key words like, trivialization , positive selfattributes and so on were found to be missing in the answers of some candidates. (b) This question was very well attempted by most of the candidates. 95 [4] [6] Suggestions for teachers The definition, steps and direct approach must be explained clearly to candidates. The concepts of social learning, realistic competition and stereo types should be explained clearly to candidates. MARKING SCHEME Question 8. (a) Cognitive Dissonance: How we sometimes change our own attitudes: There are many occasions in everyday life when we feel compelled to say or do things inconsistent with our true attitudes. The reasons for behaving in polite, but slightly dishonest ways are so obvious that social psychologists describe such situations as involving induced compliance situations in which we feel compelled to say or do things inconsistent with our true attitudes. When we behave in this way, - when we engage in attitude discrepant behaviour this may sometimes produce changes in the attitudes we hold. In fact, our attitudes may shift toward what we felt compelled to do or say, thus reducing the size of the gap between our true attitudes and our overt actions. Such effects were first predicted by a very famous theory known as the theory of cognitive dissonance. The term cognitive dissonance refers to the feelings we experience when we notice a gap between two attitudes we hold, or between our attitudes and our behaviour. Dissonance, it appears, is quite unpleasant, so when we experience it, we attempt to reduce it. We can accomplish this in several different ways, first, we can change our attitudes or our behaviour so that these are more consistent with each other. For example, we can convince ourselves that the colour of our friend s sweater is not really so bad. Second, we can acquire new information that supports our attitude or our behaviour. For instance, we can seek out information indicating that our boss s plan does make some sense. Third, we can engage in trivialization conclude that the attitudes or behaviours in question are not important. All of these approaches can be viewed as direct ones to dissonance reduction. They focus on the attitude- behaviour discrepancies that are causing the dissonance. Research by Steele and his colleagues, however, indicates that dissonance can also be reduced through indirect tactics ones that leave the basic discrepancy between attitudes and behaviour intact, but reduce the negative feelings generated by dissonance. According to Steele, adoption of such indirect routes to dissonance reduction are most likely to occur when attitude-behaviour discrepancies involve important attitudes or self believe. Under these conditions, Steele suggests individuals experiencing may focus not so much on reducing the gap between their attitudes and their behaviour as on self-affirmation efforts to restore positive self-evaluations that are threatened by the dissonance. How can they achieve self-affirmation? By focusing on their positive selfattitudes good things about themselves. For instance, if an individual experienced dissonance as a result of telling his boss that the boss s plan was good when in fact he thought it was silly, he could remind himself that he had recently served as a volunteer for a local charity, helped a friend move, and so on. Contemplating these positive self-attributes would help reduce the discomfort produced by dissonance. According to Festinger s theory, there are two basic factors that affect the strength of the dissonance viz (i) the numbers of dissonant beliefs and (ii) the importance attached to each belief. (b) (b) The Role of Social Learning: The First perspective on the origins of prejudice begins with the fact that such attitudes are learned. We acquire them from the people around us through the process of social learning. Prejudice emerges out of countless experiences in which children hear or observe their 96 parents, friends, teachers, and others expressing prejudiced views. Because, children want to be like these persons, and are often rewarded for expressing the right view, they quickly adopt such attitudes themselves. While persons with whom children interact play a key role in this process, the mass media, too, are important. If television, films, and other media present members of various social groups in an unflattering light, this may contribute to the development of prejudice on the part of children. And in fact, African Americans, Asians, persons of Hispanic descent, and many other minority groups were indeed presented unflatteringly in films and on television in the United States in the past decades. Fortunately, this situation has changed greatly in recent years; members of these groups are now being shown in a much more favourable manner. So, at least one important source of prejudiced attitudes seems to be decreasing. Direct Intergroup Conflict: Competition as a Source of Bias: It is sad but true that many of the things we value most a good job, a nice home, high status are in short supply; there is never enough to go around. This fact serves as the basis for one view of prejudice realistic conflict theory. According to this view, prejudice stems from competition between social groups over valued commodities or opportunities. The theory further suggests that as such competition persists, the members of each group involved come to view the other group increasingly negative ways. They label members of the other group as enemies, view their own group as superior, and draw the boundaries between themselves and their opponents ever more firmly. As a result, what starts out as economic competition gradually turns into full-scale prejudice, with the hatred and anger this usually implies. Of course, competition between groups does not always produce such effects; but it does produce them in enough cases that this factor can be viewed as one important cause of prejudice. Cognitive Sources of Prejudice: The Role of Stereotypes: It involves the possibility that prejudice stems at least in part from basic aspects of social cognition - the ways in which we think about others and process social information. Several processes seem to play a role in this regard, but perhaps the most important of these involves stereotypes. These are cognitive frameworks consisting of knowledge and beliefs about specific social groups frameworks suggesting that by and large, all members of these groups possess certain traits, at least to a degree. Like other cognitive frameworks (schemas), stereotypes exert strong effects on the ways in which we process social information. For instance, information relevant to a particular stereotype is processed more quickly than information unrelated to it. Similarly, stereotypes lead us to pay attention to specific types of information usually information consistent with the stereotypes. And when information inconsistent with stereotypes does manage to enter consciousness, it may be actively refuted or simply denied. In fact, research findings indicate that when individuals encounter persons who behave in ways contrary to stereotypes, they often perceive these persons as a new subtype rather than as an exception to their existing stereotype. Once an individual has acquired a stereotype about some social group, she or he tends to notice information that fits into readily than facts inconsistent with it. As a result, the stereotype strengthens with time and may ultimately become invulnerable new information or experiences simply can t change it. Indeed, given the strength of such effects, some researchers have described stereotypes as inferential prisons mental frameworks from which 97 it is difficult if not impossible to escape. Given that stereotypes often lead us into serious errors and misjudgements in our social thought, why do they persist? One answer is that they are a kind of labour saving device where social cognition is concerned. In other words, they allow us to make quick and dirty judgments about others without engaging in complex, effortful thought. Another possibility is that stereotypes allow individuals to protect the bolster their social identity. By perceiving all members of out-groups as alike, and as possessing more negative traits than members of our own in-group, we can boost our own group and our identification with it. Presumably, the greater the threat to our in-group, the stronger such tendencies, and therefore the stronger the relevant stereotypes. Question 9 Write short notes on any two of the following: [5 2] (a) Educational psychology. (b) Counterfactual thinking. (c) Role of psychology in understanding criminals and preventing crime. Comments of Examiners (a) A number of candidates emphasized on the branches of psychology and were unable to elaborate on the use of Educational Psychology. (b) The basic concept of counterfactual thinking was well explained by many candidates. However, in some cases, details regarding its impact were missing. (c) Some candidates could not define criminal correctly. Many wrote answers relative to rehabilitation of criminals, rather than understanding criminals, as was required. 98 Suggestions for teachers Role of psychology in school setup, such as, personal counselling/guidance; vocational guidance; creating a safe, productive school environment; dealing with children with special needs-special education; working with parents or teachers, etc. should be discussed with students. Students must be taught the details regarding the impact of counter factual thinking Upward counterfactual Downward counterfactual. Students should be taught the age of a criminal . A more structured discussion is required for this topic. Specific ways/techniques to reduce criminal behaviour must be taught. MARKING SCHEME Question 9. (a) (a) Educational Psychology: Educational psychology is a branch of general psychology, but is a fully developed branch with its own standing as a distinct system of study. It is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organisations. Educational psychology is concerned with how candidates learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities. According to Skinner, Educational psychology covers the entire range of behaviour and personality as related to education. Educational psychology includes a range of specialities within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology help to facilitate learning in school candidates and teachers. Deals with individual problems, learning differences, career counselling, choice of a career requirement of a field or job, testing individuals, matching individual and field job. Educational psychology has a multidimensional scope as it enables a study of pupils minds, their behaviour and the laws and methods of learning. It also aids in the analysis of the aims of education with reference to psychology. It helps in evaluation of students achievement and assessment of their personality. (b) (b) Counterfactual Thinking: (c) The effects of considering What might have been . Suppose that you take an important exam, but when you receive your score, it is a C much lower than you hoped. What thoughts will enter your mind as you consider your grade? If you are like most people, you may imagine what it might have been receiving a higher grade and reflect on how you could have obtained that better outcome. If only I had studied more, or come to class more often, you may think to yourself. And then, perhaps, you may begin to formulate plans for actually doing better on the next test. Such thoughts about what might have been are known in social psychology as counterfactual thinking and occur in a wide range of situations, not just in ones in which we experience disappointments. For instance, suppose you read an article in the newspaper about a woman who was injured by bricks falling off the front of a large office building. Certainly, you will feel some sympathy for this person. But now imagine that the article goes on to indicate either (1) that she is a stranger in town who had never been on that street before, or (2) that she works in the building next door and passes this way several times a day. Will you feel more sympathy for the injured person under condition (1) or condition (2)? Many studies indicate that you may actually experience more sympathy for the injured woman if she is a stranger in town than if she passes that building every day on the way to work or to lunch. Why? Because, it is somewhat harder to imagine the woman not being injured when she walks past the building every day. And when it is harder to imagine an alternative outcome (such as the woman s not being injured) we feel less sympathy. 99 Here s is another example: Will you feel more sympathy for a driver who never picks up hitchhikers but one day breaks his rule and is robbed by the person, or for a driver who frequently picks up hitchhikers and one day is robbed? Probably, you will have less sympathy for the driver who routinely picks up hitchhikers; after all; this person is asking for trouble. Moreover, because this driver takes many risks, it is harder for us to imagine another outcome (his not being robbed). In general terms, research findings indicate that we feel more sympathy for people who experience harm as a result of unusual actions on their part than as a result of more typical behaviour. Engaging in counterfactual thinking can produce any other factor effects, too. For instance, such thinking can, depending on its focus, either boost or depress current moods. If individuals imagine better outcome than actually occurred (upward counterfactuals), they may experience strong feelings of regret, dissatisfaction, or envy, especially if they do not feel capable of obtaining better outcomes in the future. Alternatively, if individuals imagine worse outcomes than actually occurred, for example, have been found among Olympic athletes who win bronze medals and who comfort themselves by imagining what it would be like to have won no medal whatsoever. In sum, engaging in counterfactual thought can strongly influence affective states. (d) In addition to these effects, counterfactual thinking can also help individuals understand why negative or disappointing outcomes occurred. This, in turn, can often help people plan changes in behaviour or new strategies that can improve their future performance. Recent findings indicates that the magnitude of improvements individuals desire. In other words, the greater the improvement desired, the larger the changes in behaviour such persons imagine. If I receive a C in a course, but would be happy with a B, I think about studying a little more for each exam. If, instead, I desire an A (a larger improvement in obtained outcome), I think about studying much more. Regardless of the specific thoughts involved, engaging in counter factual thinking may be one technique that helps individuals learn from past experience and profit from their mistakes. (e) In sum, imagining what might have been in a given situation can yield many effects, ranging from despair and intense regret through hopefulness and increased determination to do better in the future. Our tendency to think not only about what is, but also about what might be, therefore, can have far-reaching effects on many aspects of our social thought and social behaviour. (c) Criminal behaviour: In a legal sense, person of 21 years and above convicted by the court of law for violating the provisions of IPC and CPC is labelled a criminal in our country and the illegal act for which he is convicted is known as crime. Any behaviour like pick-pocketing, gambling, burglary, robbery, theft, dacoity, rape, kidnapping and abduction attempts at suicide, murder, riots, destroying another s property, sexual assault, prostitution, cheating, counterfeiting, failure to deposit taxes and revenue, etc. are termed criminal behaviour. Understanding of Criminals: It is said that criminal behaviour is a mental disease and a criminal is a mental patient. In view of this, the role of psychology is of great importance in understanding criminals. Usually, society looks at criminals with raised eye brows, and hatred. People of the society 100 condemn them as they are law breakers and do great harm to the society. But why does a person becomes a criminal. Is he responsible for his antisocial behaviour or his parental training? Faulty childhood, early frustration and rejecting parents all combined are responsible for this. Should we, thus blame him or blame the society and try to change the factors leading to criminal act. Prevention and treatments: The remedy for criminal behaviour demands preventive and curative measures. Prevention: The preventive measures involve improvement of social factors and environmental conditions that are responsible for the germination and perpetuation of criminal behaviour. The problem is a gigantic one and needs the cooperation of parents, members of the family, neighbourhood, community, school or college authorities, religious heads, police and government officials responsible for the social and psychological environment of the inhabitants of a society. The following measures may be fruitful in the prevention task: 1. Since today s delinquents are tomorrow s criminals, maximum efforts should be made for the prevention, control and treatment of the identified delinquents. 2. There is a great need for social reforms and breaking social and caste barriers. 3. The task narrowing the gulf between the rich and the poor, linguistic groups and religious sects should be given priority. 4. The importance of moral values should be inculcated. There should be an end to the crisis of character threatening the existence of the moral base and legal codes of our society. 5. The system of education and national planning need rethinking and re-modification for minimising economic difficulties of our youth and adults. 6. The problem of unemployment has to be checked and the professional dissatisfaction as well as frustration affecting the vast population of the younger generation should be curbed. 7. Attempts should be made to minimise undesirable influence of literature, films and other mass media. 8. The parents, elders, government authorities, social, religious, educational and political leaders should be such that they become ideals of socially desirable behaviour. 9. The society should feel the necessity of providing social and legal justice to its citizens. In case of environmental deprivations and hazards of life, the affected individual should be helped, protected and rehabilitated. Thus, there is a need for modifying the environmental conditions so that one does not fall victim to social and emotional maladjustment or lured by the criminals and drifted by instinctive behaviour to commit crimes. (Any five points) 101 GENERAL COMMENTS: (a) Topics found difficult by candidates in the Question Paper: Q.1 (vi) Explain the term surface traits . (vii) What is meant by Reaction Formation ? (xiii) Explain the term dream analysis as a features in psychodynamic therapy. (xvi) Explain the term development . (xv) Name one post Freudian psychologist. Q.6 (b) Relaxation training and yoga act as effective strategies of handling stress. (b) Concepts in which candidates got confused: Q.1 (iii) fully functioning person and self-actualization. (viii) Discrimination and prejudice. Q.4 (b) Levels of intelligence-above or below overage. Q.5 (a) Confusion regarding Piaget s cognitive development during childhood. Q.6 (a) Effect of stress on health and performance. Q.7 (b) (i), (ii) Therapies of classical and operant conditioning. Q.9 (c) Criminal behavior and criminal rehabilitation. (c) Suggestions for candidates: Follow syllabus carefully and ensure that all the relevant words and terms are learnt correctly. Examples of concepts are important and helpful in getting a clear understanding. Manage your time properly. Spend the reading time in reading the question paper carefully and understanding what is required in each question. Contribution of the psychologists (mentioned in the scope) must be known. Research studies, names with correct spelling and definitions must be quoted regularly. Acronyms like MMPI, GATB etc. must be learnt correctly. 102

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