Trending ▼   ResFinder  

ICSE Class X Question Bank 2025 :

91 pages, 152 questions, 0 questions with responses, 0 total responses,    0    0
I Am Someone
   		+Fave Message
ProfileTimelineUploads
 Home > iamastudent323 >

Formatting page ...

PART I : MAP WORK CHAPTER-1 INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS Revision Notes The term Topography is derived from two Greek words topos meaning a place and grapho meaning to draw . Topographical map is also known as Ordinance Survey Sheet. They are also called as the topo sheets or the topo maps. The Topographical sheets in India are prepared by the government department called the Survey of India. A Topographic map is a detailed and accurate graphic representation of cultural and natural features that appear on the earth s surface. Topographic maps have multiple uses in the present day like in geographical planning or large-scale architecture, earth sciences and many other geographical disciplines, used by professionals like soldiers and scientists, etc. Topographical maps are usually drawn on large-scale showing details of natural and man-made features, such as mountains, hills, rivers, villages, roads, bridges, etc. Grid lines are imaginary network of equidistant lines used on a Topographical map. They are drawn and shown in red colour. A Grid Reference helps in finding the exact location of a place in a map through a set of lines called the Easting and the Northing. Lines extending from north to south on a map are called Eastings. Easting that lies to the left of the object is to be read. Eastings increase numerically eastward. Lines extending from east to west on a map are called Northings. Northing that lies below the object is to be read. Northings increase numerically Northward. These lines have been named as the Eastings and the Northings because they indicate distances Eastward and Northward respectively from the point of origin. These lines are numbered. The Easting numbers are to be quoted first and then the Northing numbers. The points at which the vertical and the horizontal lines of grid cross are called Coordinates. The squares enclosed by the network of grid lines are called as Grid Squares. There are two types of grid references- Four-figure grid reference and Six-figure grid reference. The four-figure grid references are applied to locate large areas like lakes, relief features, etc. while the six-figure grid references are applied to locate the exact position of a particular place or feature like police station, spot heights, wells, causeways, temples, etc. Steps to find Grid References: When giving a grid reference, give the Eastings number first and the Northings number second, similar to the giving reading of a graph, where the x axis coordinates are given first followed by the y . Four-figure grid reference: Example: Find four-figure grid reference of the shaded square box in the given grid square. (i) In the given grid square, first locate the easting number of the shaded box, which is 57. 2 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X (ii) Then locate the northing number of the same shaded box, which is 82. (iii) Now, write both numbers together by writing the easting number first and the northing number second. So, the four-figure grid reference of the given grid square is 5782. Six-figure grid reference: Example: Find six-figure grid reference of the shaded square box in the given grid square. (i) First locate the four-figure grid reference, here it is 5782. (ii) Then divide each side of the grid into ten parts both Vertically and Horizontally. Mark the divisions of the easting and the divisions of northing. Here, it is marked from 0 to 9 for the easting and from 0 to 8 in the sequence of even numbers for the northing i.e., 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 3 (iii) Find the intersecting point, which is the location of the reference point. Here it is 5 for the easting and 4 for the northing. (iv) Add this easting number to the easting s number of the four-figure grid reference, here it is 575 and add this northing number to the northings number of the four-figure grid reference, here it is 824. (v) So, 575824 is the new six-digit number that becomes the six-figure grid reference of the given grid square. A Contour is an imaginary line that is drawn on the map to connect places having equal heights above mean sea level. They are also known as Isohypse ( iso means equal and hypse means height). Every point of a contour line has the same elevation that separates uphill from downhill. Contour lines do not touch or cross each other except at a cliff. Every 5th contour line is darker in colour. Contour Interval (C.I.) is the vertical difference between two consecutive contour lines which remains constant throughout the map, e.g., 20 metres in the Survey of India Map Sheets No. 45D/7 and 45D/10. Gradient is the amount of steepness of slope. It is the amount of vertical rise of land in relation to horizontal distance. There are different types of slopes represented through contours. These are Gentle Slope, Steep Slope, Concave Slope, Convex Slope and Terraced or Stepped Slope. Gentle Slope : When the degree or angle of slope of a feature is very low, the slope is gentle. The contour lines representing this type of slope are placed far apart. Steep Slope : When the degree or angle of slope of a feature is high, the slope is steep. The contour lines are placed close to one another. Concave Slope : A slope which has gentle gradient in the lower part of a relief feature and steep gradient in its upper parts is called the concave slope. Contours in this type of slope are widely spaced in the lower parts and are close to one another in the upper parts. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Convex Slope : A slope which has gentle gradient in the upper part of a relief feature and steep gradient in its lower part is called the convex slope. Contours in this type of slope are widely spaced in the upper parts and are close to one another in the lower parts. Terraced Slope : When two contour lines are found closer and too wider apart one after the other, i.e., it first rises gently, then steeply, then gently again and so on, this pattern of arrangement is called terraced slope or stepped slope. Conical Hill : It is a landform having a narrow peak at a high elevation, less than 3,000 ft. above the surrounding. It is shown by closed contours almost circular in shape. It is represented by concentric contours. The spaces between the contour lines are usually uniformConical and equally Hill spaced. 320 300 280 260 Conical Hill Mountain: It is an elevation rising more than 3,000 ft. above the surrounding areas. On a map, contours showing mountains are close to one another with the increase in the contour value. Mountain y alle er v Riv er v Riv 880 860 840 820 800 alle y Valleys : There are four types of valleys: V-Shaped Valley, U-Shaped Valley, Hanging Valley and Gorge or Canyon Valley. A V-Shaped river valley is represented by V-Shaped contour. It is a narrow low lying area between the hills and usually points downward slope. 88 0 860 r 840 Spu 4 820 800 V-shaped River Valley U-shaped valleys have flat wide bottom and steep parallel sides. The lowermost part of the U-shaped valley is shown by the innermost contour line with a wide gap between its two sides of the stream. The contour value increases with uniform intervals for all other contour lines outward. Hanging valley is a high-lying tributary valley with a steep slope connecting with the main valley. The slopes of this valley are shown by closely spaced contours more or less having a shape of V. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 5 U-shaped and Hanging Valley Watershed or Water Divide: It looks like a ridge or highland dividing two areas that are drained by different river system. On one side of a watershed, rivers and streams flow in one direction and on the other side, they flow in another direction. It is also called water parting. Major examples of Watershed or Water Divide areAmbala in Northern Part and Western Ghats in the southern part of India. Major examples of Watershed or Water Divide are: Ambala in Northern Part and Western Ghats in the Southern Part of India. Water divide Escarpment (Scarp) : It is a landform with sides sloping in opposite directions. It is a steep slope on one side and a gentle slope on the other side. The steep slope is called a scarp and the gentle slope is called a dip slope. A scarp has closely spaced contours while a dip slope has widely spaced contours. Escarpment Hill as shown on map 200 180 A 160 140 lope tle s Gen B Escarpment ope 120 100 p sl 220 200 180 160 140 Stee A 220 B Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X A Ridge : It is a high elongated chain of hills with two or more peaks shown as elliptical contours. The contours are spaced elongated and close. Ridge A Col : A Col is a narrow, high pass through a mountain chain formed by the meeting of river or glacier valley from opposite sides of the range. A Saddle : It is a pass that slopes gently between two peaks and is shaped like a horse saddle. It is broader than a col. 5900 5800 5700 5600 5500 5400 5300 5200 5100 Top of Hill Steep (Contours closely spaced) 5900 5800 Saddle 700 5 0 560 0 550 0 540 00 Ri dg e 53 Flat (Contours widely spaced) 00 0 510 re am 52 St 6 Contours point uphill for drainage The scale of a map is the proportion between the distance on the map and the corresponding distance on the ground. There are three ways of expressing scale(i) The Statement of Scale : It expresses the relationship of map to the ground in words e.g., two centimeters to one kilometer and is expressed as 2 cm = 1 km. (ii) The Representative Fraction (R.F.): It is the ratio between the distance on the map to the distance on the corresponding ground and is in fraction. The numerator denotes the length on the map and the denominator denotes the actual distance on the ground. e.g. 1:50,000. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Representative Fraction (R.F.) = 7 Distance on the Map Distancee of the Ground Example: If a scale is 2 cm., to 1 km. calculate the R.F. Distance on the Map R.F. = Distance of the Ground 2 cm 2 cm = 1 km 1000 100 cm 1 = 1 : 50 , 000 50 , 000 (iii) The Linear or Graphical Scale : It is divided into primary and secondary divisions. It is 10 to 20 centimeters long which is divided into 8 divisions of two centimetres each representing one kilometre each from 1 to 7 kilometres. Linear Scale There are various methods to measure distances on a map such as : (i) to measure distance along a straight line, (ii) to measure distance along curves and (iii) area by the grid square method. There are four main cardinal directions- North, South, East and West. These directions are further divided into four major directions-North-East, North-West, South-East and SouthWest. North North-West North-East West East South-West South-East South Eight Cardinal Points The North to which the magnetic compass needle points is called the Magnetic North. The Magnetic Compass is an instrument which is used in finding directions. Bearing is the horizontal angle between the direction of an object and the clockwise direction from North. A bearing with reference to magnetic north-south line is called Magnetic Bearing. A bearing measured with reference to geographic north-south line is called True Bearing. Settlement means a cluster of inhabited houses- Urban and Rural. There are different patterns of settlements like- Nucleated or clustered, dispersed or scattered, linear, radial and rectangular pattern of settlements. Linear Dispersed Nucleated 8 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Drainage Pattern (Definition) The various forms in which rivers flow depending upon the factors like Rock Structure, Topography, Climate and Slope of the Land. There are different drainage patterns. They are Dendritic, Trellis or Rectangular, Radial, Disappearing or Irregular, Parallel drainage patterns. DendriticDrainage Drainage Dendritic Radial Drainage Radial Drainage RectangularDrainage/Trellis Drainage/Trellis Rectangular Disappearing Drainage/Irregular Drainage Parallel Drainage The Height that is represented by a triangle ( ) followed by a number which indicates its height above mean sea level, like 364 is called Triangulated Height. It is more accurate than Spot Height because it is calculated by trigonometry. Spot height is represented on the map by a black dot in front of the number like, .275, which indicates the height of that particular point above mean sea level. 275 Form lines: They are used in addition to contour lines. They are the broken lines running in the direction of contours. They help in indicating minor details, which are not shown by contours with large intervals. 275 Form lines Surveyors make a permanent cut or mark on a rock, stone, prominent building or place called the Bench Mark (BM). It indicates the height in feet or metres of that place above mean sea level e.g., BM 610. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Relative Height/Depth is represented by a small r written along with a number, like, 22r. It indicates the relative height or depth of a particular point from the surrounding surface and not from the sea level. It is marked beside the well, tank, embankment, peak, dam, sand dune, bank of a river, etc. The Topographical map uses signs and symbols to represent certain man-made and physical features. These are called Conventional Signs and Symbols. Causeway : A raised road over a small stream but not a bridge. A raised metalled road over a non-perennial stream or marshy area or which serves as a temporary bridge. Conventional Signs and Symbols : They are illustrated by a legend or an index given in the lower margin of the map. Different colours are used in toposheet to show different features. They are as follows: (i) Brown : Contour line, their numbering, form lines, sand features. (ii) Blue : All water bodies like well, lake, etc., where they contain water. (iii) Yellow : All cultivated areas. (iv) Green : All wooded/forested areas, scattered trees and scrubs. (v) Black : All names, river banks, broken grounds, dry streams, surveyed trees, heights and their numbering, railway tracks, telephone and telegraph lines. (vi) Red : Grid lines and their numbering, roads, cart tracks, settlements, huts and other buildings. (vii) White: Uncultivated or barren lands. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS AND SYMBOLS Permanent Huts Temporary Huts Mine Surveyed Tree Metalled Roads Unmetalled Roads Cart-Track Pack-Track Causeway Road or Rail (Embankment Perennial Lined Well Perennial Unlined Well Non-Perennial Lined Well Perennial Unlined Well Tube Well Spring Perennial Tank Non-Perennial Tank Tank with Embankment Broken Ground Perennial River 9 Non-Perennial River Island 200 Triangulated Height (In Metres) Benchmark 10 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Relative Height (In Metres) Spot Height (Metres) Brackish [Brackish Means Unfit to Drink] For Direction or Flow of River Look for Arrow Waterfall Contours Foot Path International Boundary District Boundary Railways State Boundary Telegraph Line Fire Line Grass Conifers Palms Deciduous Forest Bamboos Unmetalled Road with Bridge Temple Church Mosque Chhatri Idgah Tomb Lighthouse Fort Anchorage Grave CONTOUR Steep Slope Conical Hill Spur Gentle Slope Ridge Water Shed Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 11 Escarpment Col or Saddle A River Gap Form Line Key Terms Topographic Maps : These are large scale maps that depict both physical and man-made features of the land-scape, characterised by contour lines to show in detail ground relief of the land. Grid Reference : It helps in finding the exact location of a place on a map through a set of lines called the Easting and the Northing. Coordinates : The points at which the vertical and the horizontal lines of grid crosses. Magnetic North: The North to which the magnetic compass needle points is called the Magnetic North. Scale : It is the proportion between the distance on the map and the corresponding distance on the ground. Cardinal Directions : The four principal directions on a compass: North, South, East, or West. CHAPTER-2 LOCATION, EXTENT AND PHYSICAL FEATURES Revision Notes India is centrally situated in the southern part of the continent of Asia at the head of the Indian Ocean. India extends from 8 4 N to 37 6 N latitudes and from 68 7 E to 97 25 E longitudes. India with an area of 3.28 million sq. km. occupies about 2.42% of the world s total land area. It is the seventh largest country in the world. The longitude of 82 30 E passes almost through the middle of India at Mirzapur near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh, is taken as the Standard Meridian of India to calculate the Indian Standard Time (IST). The IST is 5 hours ahead of the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). India lies entirely in the Northern hemisphere. The Tropic of Cancer (23 30 N) divides India into almost two climatic zones. India has neighbouring countries of Pakistan and Afghanistan in the northwest; China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north and Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east. The island of Sri Lanka lies to the south of India, separated by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar. India is a peninsula surrounded by water on three sides. The Indian Ocean lies to the south, the Arabian Sea to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the east of India. India has a regular coastline that is why it does not have many natural harbours. The Gulf of Kachchh and the Gulf of Khambhat are found along the coast of Gujarat. Lake Chilika is located on the east of Odisha. The Andaman and the Nicobar Islands lies in the Bay of Bengal between latitudes 8 N and 14 N. Indira Point is the southernmost point of India located at 6 N that got submerged under water in the year 2004 by Tsunami. The Indian subcontinent is separated from the rest of the Asian continent by a chain of high mountains made up of the Himalaya, the Karakoram, the Hindu Kush, the Kunlun and the Tien Shan. It is divided into six physiographic divisions- 12 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Physical Features of India (i) The Northern Mountain System (ii) The Plains of Northern India (iii) The Great Indian Desert (iv) The Peninsular Plateau (v) The Coastal Plains (vi) The Islands The Northern Mountain System consists of : (i) The Trans - Himalayan region or Tibet Himalayan Region (ii) The Himalayas (iii) The Eastern Hills or Purvanchal Range The Northern Mountain Wall of India is also known as the Himalayan Range. The Himalayas are the young fold mountains. They run in a west to east direction from Indus to Brahmaputra forming an arc, which covers a distance of about 2400 km. Their width varies from about 400 km in the west to about 150 km in the East. The Himalayas may be divided into three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent as: (i) The Himadri Range (ii) The Himachal Range (iii) The Shivalik Range The Himadri is also called the Great Himalayas or the Inner Himalayas. The Greater Himalayas or Himadri has average height of 6000 metres and width lies between 120 kms - 190 kms. The Great Himalayas has the world s highest peak, Mt. Everest (8,848 m), the world s second highest peak, Mount K2 or Godwin Austin is in the Karakoram Range and Kanchenjunga is the highest peak of Himalaya in India. It has many passes, namely, the Karakoram Pass, the Shipki-La Pass, the Mana Pass, the Nathu La Pass. The Himachal is also known as the Himachal Himalayas or the Middle or Lesser Himalayas. The Lesser Himalayas has height range of 1000 metres - 4500 metres and average width is 50 kms. The Himachal range runs parallel to the Himadri. Some of the important ranges like the Pir Panjal range, the Dhauladhar range and the Nag Tibba range are situated here. Some of the most important hill stations lie in this range like Mussoorie, Shimla, Nainital, Almora, Chail, etc. The Pir Panjal, Bidli, Golabghar and Banihal are some important passes of the Lesser Himalayas. The Shivalik range is also called the Outer Himalayas. The Shivalik range is not a continuous range and its height varies from 900 meters - 1100 meters and the width lying between 10 Kms - 50 Kms. The valleys lying between the Shivalik and the Lesser Himalayas (Himachal) are called Duns like Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun. The Trans-Himalayas lies in the north of the Great Himalayan range. It is a 1600 km long mountain range in Tibet, India and in POK, extending in a west-east direction parallel to the main Himalayan range. Also known as Tibet Himalayan Region. In the east, the Himalayas bend towards south forming a series of hills known as the Eastern Hills or the Purvanchal. The Doon, Bhabhar, Terai and Bhangar are the other important features of the Himalayas. The Himalayas are of great significance because of the following reasons (i) The Himalayas act as a climate-divide since it protects the northern India from severe cold in winters and act as a barrier for the moisture-laden monsoon winds which bring heavy rain to the North Indian Plains. (ii) The Himalayas are a source of many perennial rivers due to the glaciers over there. Rivers like the Ganga, the Yamuna, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Gomti, the Kosi, the Sharda and the Brahmaputra provide water for drinking and irrigation to the entire Northern Plains. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X (iii) The rivers originating in the Himalayas are a major source of hydel power. (iv) The Himalayas act as a physical barrier to the invaders. 13 (v) It attracts thousands of tourists from India and abroad due to the large number of hill stations like, Mussoorie, Nainital, Shimla, Srinagar, Ranikhet, etc. and pilgrimage centres like the shrines of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Amarnath, Vaishno Devi, Kailash-Mansarovar, etc. (vi) The Himalayas also attract the adventure seekers as it provides a lot of opportunities for trekking, hiking, river rafting, skiing, etc. (vii) The Himalayas are rich in forest resources as it provides both hard wood and soft wood and is also a home to a wide variety of wild animals like yaks, bears, tigers, elephants, red pandas, snow leopards, etc. (viii) It is a storehouse of minerals like copper, lead, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, coal and also gold, silver and precious stones. (ix) The rivers flowing down from the Himalayas through the Northern Plains carry alluvium and deposit in the flood plain which is very fertile. The plains of Northern India have three major rivers- the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries. The River Ganga rises in the Gangotri glacier in the Himalayas, the River Indus has its source in the Kailash range and the Brahmaputra River rises in the Angsi glacier in Tibet near Lake Mansarovar. The Great Plains lies to the south of the Himalayas and to the north of the Indian Peninsula. The Northern plains are about 2400 Km long and its width varies from about 300 Km in the west to about 150 Km in the east. It mainly includes the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. It can be sub-divided into the following three areas(i) The Punjab Plains (ii) The Ganga Plains (iii) The Brahmaputra Plains The Northern Plains are of great significance because of the following reasons(i) Due to the presence of a good network of rivers and favourable climate, these plains support dense population. (ii) The fertile soil, perennial rivers and favourable climate have made the Northern Plains excellent agricultural land. (iii) Large number of multipurpose dams have been constructed across the rivers to provide water for irrigation and to generate electricity. (iv) Socially and religiously, the Northern Plains are of great significance. Many religious and historical cities like Allahabad, Varanasi, Haridwar, Mathura etc., are situated along the rivers. (v) Due to the flat level surface of the Northern Plains, construction of a network of roads and railways is possible. The rivers are also navigable and allow comfortable transportation. It also facilitates easy access to good communication system. The Great Indian Desert is a sandy plain covered by barchans and sand dunes. It lies towards the western margin of Aravalli Hills and the south-west of the Gangetic Plain. It is called The Thar Desert. It is the Seventeenth largest Desert in the World and the Ninth largest hot, subtropical desert in the World. Covering an area of around 77,000 sq miles (about 200,000 sq km), it is bounded on the northwest by Sutlej River, on the east by Aravalli Range, on the south by salt marshes known as the Rann of Kutch, and on the west by the Indus Valley. More than 60% of the desert lies in the states of Rajasthan, and extends into Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana. About 85% of the Thar Desert is located within India, with the remaining 15% in Pakistan. This region has semi-arid and arid weather conditions. It receives annual rainfall less than 150 mm. Luni is the only river in this area. There are a few salt water lakes, such as, The Sambhar lake, the Kuchaman lake, the Phalodi lake, etc. The vegetation cover is low with thorny bushes. The Great Indian Desert is of great significance because of the following reasons- (i) The grass in the desert has multi-purpose medicinal benefits. (ii) Camel, the desert animal, is an important means of transport to ferry people as well as goods from one place to another. 14 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X (iii) On 18 May 1974, India carried out its first nuclear weapon explosion test in the Thar Desert. (iv) Minerals like limestone, marble, phosphorite, feldspar, gypsum, etc. are obtained from this region. The Peninsular Plateau lies to the south of the Northern Plains. It is triangular shaped table land. It is the largest and the oldest of all the physiographic divisions. It has an elevation of about 600 m to 900 m and is a stable terrain due to the lava tract which was formed due to the volcanic eruptions. It is spread over the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Bihar, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The plateau can broadly be divided into following two sub-divisions(i) The Central Highlands (ii) The Deccan Plateau (i) The Central Highlands: The northern part of the Peninsula, north of the Vindhyas, is known as the Central Highlands. They are further divided into Malwa Plateau, Bundelkhand Plateau, Baghelkhand Plateau and Chhota Nagpur Plateau. (a) The Malwa Plateau is bounded by the Aravalli Range in the west, Bundelkhand in the east and Vindhya Range in the south. It stretches across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. (b) The Chhota Nagpur Plateau is situated in eastern India, covering much of Jharkhand and adjacent parts of Odisha, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. (c) The Meghalaya Plateau is an extension of the peninsular plateau towards the north-east and consists of the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills along with their outliers formed by the Assam Ranges. (d) The Bundelkhand Plateau and The Baghelkhand Plateau are eastward extensions of the central highlands. Its height ranges from about 550 m-1033 m and lies in eastern Madhya Pradesh. (ii) The Deccan Plateau: It extends from the Vindhyas to the southern tip of the peninsula. The Vindhya Range and its eastern extensions, namely Mahadeo Hills, Kaimur Hills and Maikal Range forms its northern edge. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark its western and the eastern edges. The Western Ghats, the Eastern Ghats, the Vindhya Range, the Satpura Range and the Aravalli Hills are the mountains of the Peninsular India. The major Peninsular rivers are divided into- The East flowing rivers and the West flowing rivers. The East flowing rivers are- the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery or Kaveri. The West flowing rivers are- the Narmada, the Tapi, the Luni, the Sabarmati and the Mahi. The rivers of Northern India differ from the rivers of Peninsular India in the following waysRivers of Northern India Rivers of Peninsular India 1. They are perennial and snow fed. 1. They are non-perennial, seasonal and rain fed. 2. These rivers are longer and have more tributaries. 2. These rivers are shorter and have less tributaries. 3. These rivers are young and are eroding, 3. These rivers are in their old stage and are only transporting and depositing the silt and sediments. depositing silt and sediments. 4. They have more silt as they erode sedimentary 4. They have less silt as they erode igneous rocks. rocks. The Coastal plains in India run parallel to the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal along the Peninsular Plateau. The Deccan Plateau is flanked by two coastal plains on either side of it (i) The Western Coastal Plains (ii) The Eastern Coastal Plains The Western Coastal Plains consist of- the Gujarat Plains, the Kutch Peninsula, the Kathiawar Peninsula, the Konkan Coast, the Kanara Coast and the Malabar Coast. The Eastern Coastal Plains consist of- the Northern Circars and the Coromandel Coast and have prominent deltas of the rivers, namely, river Mahanadi, river Godavari, river Krishna and river Cauvery or Kaveri. These coastal plains also include several lakes like Chilika Lake in Odisha and Kolleru and Pulicat lakes in Andhra Pradesh. The Coastal Plains are quite significant because of the following reasons(i) They are the source of precious minerals. (ii) The Kerala coast has large quantities of Monazite which is used for nuclear power. (iii) The sedimentary rocks of these coastal plains have large deposits of mineral oil. (iv) The ports accounts for about 98% of the international trade. (v) Fishing is an important activity in these coastal plains. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 15 India has two groups of Islands, namely(i) The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ii) The Lakshadweep Islands The Andaman and the Nicobar Islands are situated in the Bay of Bengal. They are a group of 572 islands. The chief islands are- Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands. The Lakshadweep Islands are situated in the Arabian Sea. They are made up of small coral islands. The Lakshadweep islands consist of 36 islands. The northern group of the islands is called the Amindivi and the remaining islands are called the Laccadives. The two groups of islands are separated by the Ten Degree Channel. It is so named as it lies on the 10-degree line of latitude to the north of the equator. The Indian Islands are of great significance because of the following reasons (i) Both these islands are rich in flora and fauna, and are of great strategic importance to India. (ii) The Andaman and the Nicobar Islands have many beaches, which is an attraction for tourists. Key Terms Pass : It is a route longitudinal through a mountain range or across a ridge. Doon : Doons/Duns are longitudinal valleys between the Himachal and the Shivalik; eg. Dehradun. Bhabhar : These are porous, gravel-ridden plains at the foot of the Himalayas. Terai: It is a marshy swampy area to the south of Bhabhar formed when water from the Bhabhar area seeps down in the soil and suddenly appears. Khadar and Bhangar : The new alluvium brought down by the rivers in low-lying zones is the Khadar soil and the old alluvium soil found in the riverbeds above the flood plain level is known as Bhangar. Perennial rivers : The rivers which contain water throughout the year, by rain in rainy season, by melting of ice in summer and by freezing as snow in the winter season are called the perennial rivers. Flood Plain : It is a generally flat area on the banks of a river or stream. It is made up of sediments such as sand, silt, and clay deposited during floods. Multipurpose Dams : Huge dams that are built across a river to serve many purposes simultaneously like irrigation, generating electricity, fishing, recreation centres, etc. Peninsular Plateau : It is the oldest landmass made up of lava flows and is composed of the old crystalline, metamorphic and igneous rocks. Erode : To wear away soil, rock or land with gradual destruction by natural forces such as water, wind, or ice. Delta : A river delta is a triangular shaped land form that forms by deposition of sediment carried by a river near its mouth where it meets the sea and gets divided into distributaries. Ten Degree Channel : The Ten Degree Channel is a channel that lies on the 10-degree line of latitude to the north of the equator, separates the Little Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. Map of India On the Outline Map of India, candidates will be required to locate, mark and name the following: Mountains, Peaks and Plateaus : Himalayas, Karakoram, Aravali, Vindhyas, Satpura, Western and Eastern Ghats, Nilgiris, *Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Mount Godwin Austin (K2), Mount Kanchenjunga, Deccan Plateau and Chota Nagpur Plateau. Plains : Gangetic Plains and Coastal Plains- (Konkan, *Kanara, Malabar, Coromandel, Northern Circars). Desert : Thar (The Great Indian Desert). Rivers : Indus, *Ravi, Beas, Chenab, Jhelum, Satluj, Ganga, Yamuna, *Ghaghra, Gomti, Gandak, Kosi, Chambal, Betwa, *Son, Damodar, Brahmaputra, Narmada, *Tapti, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauveri and Tungabhadra. Water Bodies : Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Khambhat, *Gulf of Mannar, Palk Strait, Andaman Sea, Chilika Lake, Wular Lake. Passes : Karakoram and Nathu-La Passes. Latitude and Longitudes : Tropic of Cancer, Standard Meridian (82 30 E). Direction of Winds : South-West Monsoon (Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal Branches), North-East Monsoon *and Western Disturbances. Distribution of Minerals : Oil-Mumbai High (Offshore Oil Field), Coal-Jharia, Iron - Singhbhum. 16 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Soil Distribution : Alluvial and Black Soil, Red soil. Cities : Mumbai, Kochi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata and Allahabad, Hyderabad. Population : Distribution of population (Dense and Spouse). *Note- These Concepts are only for your reference. Questions from these parts will not be asked in the Final Examination to be held in 2023. 1. The Mountain Ranges, Mountain Peaks and Hill Ranges of India : 2. The Plains (The Northern Plains and Coastal Plains), Desert (Thar) and Plateau Regions of India : Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 3. The Major Rivers of India : 4. Important Passes, Lakes and Gulfs of India : 17 18 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 5. Monsoon Winds and Important Latitude and Longitude of India : 6. Iron-ore Mines, Oil fields, Coalfields and different population density zones in India : Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 7. Major Soils in India : 8. Major cities in India : 19 20 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X PART II : GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA CHAPTER-3 CLIMATE Topic-1 Distribution of Temperature, Rainfall and Winds Concepts Covered Different Types of Climates Range of Temperatures Rainshadow Areas Loo Kalbaisakhi Mango Showers Revision Notes Climate is referred to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time (more than thirty years). Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time. The world is divided into different climatic regions. India, being one of the Asian countries, has a tropical monsoon type of climate. The temperature and precipitation varies from region to region and season to season due to the vastness of the country and topographical differences. The difference between the highest and the lowest temperature in a year is the annual range of temperature. The elements of Weather and Climate are same. They are as follows: (i) Temperature (ii) Atmospheric pressure (iii) Wind (iv) Humidity (v) Precipitation The pattern of these for a place can be shown using pictures called climographs or climatographs. Climographs or Climatographs show average monthly values of maximum temperature, minimum temperature, and rainfall for a given place. The northern part of India which lies beyond the Tropic of Cancer (23 N) experiences Continental type of climate i.e., too hot in summer and too cold in winter. The extremity of this climate is due to its distance from the sea. The northern part of the country is situated far away from the influence of the sea. The southern part of India lying in the tropical region between 8 N and 23 N experiences moderate temperature. The regions lying close to the coasts experiences equable climate. Due to the proximity of the sea, the southern coastal regions experience equable or maritime or oceanic type of climate. There are noticeable variations on the type of rainfall but also in its amount received by the region. The rainfall is mainly relief or orographic in nature in the northern part of India. It is due to the presence of mountain ranges. When it is mostly in a solid form as a snowfall in the upper parts of the Himalayas., it is in a liquid form as a rain in the rest of the country. The moisture laden winds in summer blow from sea to land and strike the windward side of the mountain causing heavy rainfall while the other side of the mountain called the leeward side receives scanty rainfall. Rainfall is erratic, uncertain and unpredictable due to its variation from time to time. Thus, sometimes it causes floods or droughts. In India, rainfall occurs mainly in summer. During summer, the moisture laden winds blow from the Arabian Sea and bring heavy rainfall to the western, the central and the northern regions due to the presence of the Western Ghats and the lofty Himalayas. The eastern coastal region receives scanty rainfall in summer but receives heavy rainfall in winters due to the NE monsoons. Besides the summer monsoon, the North-Western region also receives rain in winter due to the Western Disturbances that originate over the Mediterranean Sea and blow towards India. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 21 The rainfall is also unevenly distributed. Some regions like Rajasthan receives less than 50 cm of rainfall, the central part and the Deccan Plateau receive low rainfall of about 80 cm while place like Mawsynram near Cherrapunji receives around 2500 cm of rainfall. The distribution of rainfall depends on the relief of the land, direction of the winds from the sea and the path of the cyclonic winds. Due to increasing temperature in summer, the winds become hot and dry and affect local areas strongly. Loo is a local wind that blows in the northern part of the country in the month of May and June and causes heat strokes. It is a gusty, hot and dry wind. Similarly, Kalbaisakhi is a local wind that blows in West Bengal and Assam in the month of April, which is accompanied with thunderstorms and heavy rainfall. This rain is beneficial for the growth of tea in Assam and Rice and Jute in West Bengal. Mango Showers or Cherry Blossoms are also the local winds which blow in Kerala during summers in June. This wind helps in the growth of Mango, Coffee and Tea. In winter, the winds blow from land to sea from the north-east direction. These winds are cold and dry and slow in process. The North-Western region also receives the Western Disturbances blowing from the Mediterranean Sea and experience Winter rainfall. Key Terms Climate : The atmospheric condition which prevails over an area for a longer period of time usually over a span of 30 years. Continental Climate : It is experienced in the interior part of the country away from the influence of the sea with very hot summers and cold winters. It is also called extreme climate. Equable Climate : It is experienced near and along the coasts due to the influence of the sea with summers and winters not very hot or cold respectively. There is not much difference in the temperature throughout the year. Relief Rainfall : Due to the presence of mountains (relief feature), the moisture laden winds blowing from the sea strikes the mountain and cause heavy rainfall. Range of Temperature : Difference between the maximum and the minimum recorded temperature. Windward Side: The side of the mountain facing the moisture laden winds which cause heavy rainfall after striking the mountain. E.g., western side of the Western Ghats. Leeward Side or Rain Shadow Area : The opposite side of the mountain which receives scanty or less rainfall. It is also the rain shadow area. E.g., Deccan Plateau. Loo : It is a local wind that blows in the north western part of the country and causes heat strokes. It is a gusty, hot and dry wind. Kalbaisakhi : It is a local wind that blows in West Bengal and Assam in the month of April, which is accompanied with thunderstorms and heavy rainfall. This rain is beneficial for the growth of Tea in Assam and Rice and Jute in West Bengal. Mango Showers or Cherry Blossoms : These are the local winds which blow in Kerala during summers. This wind helps in the growth of Mango, Coffee and Tea. 22 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Affecting Climate and Seasons Topic-2 Factors Concepts Covered October Heat Western Disturbances Jet Streams El Nino Revision Notes India has diverse climatic conditions. There are a number of factors responsible which influence the climate of India (i) The Monsoon Winds (ii) Latitude (iii) Relief (iv) Altitude (v) Western disturbances (vi) The Distance from sea (vii) Air Currents (viii) Ocean Currents The Himalaya acts as a climate divide. It prevents the South-West moisture laden winds from crossing over it which results in heavy rainfall in the entire Indian Sub-Continent. It also protects from the cold Siberian winds from entering the Indian region. The monsoon winds bring summer rainfall over the whole of South Asia. The South-West monsoon winds move from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal to the low pressure areas of North and North-west India. These winds bring heavy rainfall during Summers from June to September. In October when it withdraws and retreats, it picks up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and sheds good amount of rainfall on the Eastern Coastal Plain of India. The winds blowing over the land are cold and dry. The important line of latitude, the Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of India dividing it into two zonesthe Temperate Zone (Northern part) and the Tropical Zone (Southern part). The southern tropical zone remains warm throughout the year and practically has no Winter Season. The places north of the Tropic of Cancer never experience overhead sun while all the places in the South of it experience overhead sun twice a day. Relief is also an important factor in affecting the climate of India. The Western Ghats stands as a barrier on the way of the South-West monsoon winds which comes from the Arabian Sea. This results in heavy rain on the Western Coastal Plains, which lie on the Windward Side. The Himalayas in the extreme north prevents the moisture laden winds from crossing it and thus causes heavy rainfall in the major portion of the Indian Sub-Continent. The Aravalli Range in the west runs parallel to the South-West monsoon winds and thus don t shed any rainfall in that region. Higher the Altitude, lower the temperature. It is due to normal Lapse Rate, i.e., for every rise of 166 metres there is a decrease of 1 C of temperature. Thus, the Mountains are cooler than the Plains. The three major surrounding seas- the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal have a great influence and impact on the climate. They are the major source of rain in India and also due to its proximity; the coastal places have moderate climatic conditions. During the winter season, due to the Western Disturbances over the Mediterranean Sea, the Westerly Cyclonic Winds blow towards India and bring the North-west part of India under its influence. These cyclonic winds bring rain to the North-Western part of India. Due to the distance from the sea, the areas far away from the influence of the sea experience Continental Type of Climate, i.e.. too hot in Summers and too cold in Winters. The coastal places, on the other hand, experience equable or maritime climate due to the nearness of sea. The land breeze and sea breeze are caused due to the differential heating and cooling of land and sea. Air currents which determine the arrival and departure of the Monsoons are known as Jet Streams. The Westerly Jet Streams prevail over the Northern Plains while the Easterly Jet Streams steers the Tropical Depression over India. El-Nino is a warm ocean current which increases the surface temperature of the sea and affects the Monsoon winds in the Indian Ocean. It causes weak drought-like situation in the Indian Sub-Continent. Monsoons are periodic seasonal winds and are caused due to differential heating and cooling of land and sea. Monsoons are divided into two wind systems (i) The Summer Monsoon Wind System (ii) The Winter Monsoon Wind System In India, on the basis of Monsoon variations, the year may be categorized into four main seasons. They are- (i) The Hot Summer Season (March to May) Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 23 (ii) The Hot and Wet or Rainy Season (June to September) (iii) The Retreating South West Monsoon (October-November) (iv) The Cold and Dry Winter Season (December-February) The hot summer season begins in March when the sun starts moving northwards and shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer. During this period, the temperature rises and goes up to 48 C. Due to the moderating influence of the sea, the heat is not so intense in the southern part of India. Plateaus and hills are also cool due to their elevation. The rainy season begins in June and continues till September. The differential heating and cooling of land and sea develops intense low pressure over the large landmass and intense high pressure over the sea. The moisture laden monsoon winds enter the Indian mainland from the south-west direction and bring heavy rainfall accompanied by thundering and lightning. The sudden violent onset of rainfall in the first week of June is termed as the Burst of the Monsoon. Kerala is the first state to receive the monsoon showers and the last to see it retreat. The South-West monsoon is divided into two branches(i) The Arabian Sea Branch (ii) The Bay of Bengal Branch After the monsoon, in the month of October, the South-West Monsoon begins to retreat from the northern part of India and is thus called the Retreating Monsoon. During this period, due to the apparent movement of the sun, the low pressure trough is gradually replaced by high pressure. The Retreating Winds are dry and slow in their process. The combination of high Temperature and Humidity gives rise to an oppressive (head to bear) weather, termed as October Heat. Due to local variations of Heat and Moisture, Tropical Depressions originate in the Bay of Bengal which leads to Tropical Cyclones. By the end of November the winter season begins and continues till March. The temperature decreases from South to North. January is the Coldest month. The North-east winds prevail over the country during the Winter Season and blow from land to sea. When part of these winds blow over the Bay of Bengal, they pick up moisture from there and strike the Eastern Ghats, thereby, shedding heavy rainfall along the Coastal Plains. A characteristic feature of the Winter Season is the inflow of Cyclonic Winds coming from the West. These Cyclonic Winds, caused due to low pressure systems, originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are called the Western Disturbances. These winds bring rainfall over the plains of the North-west part of India in the Winter Season. The distribution of rainfall is determined by the following situations: (i) The pressure conditions (ii) The direction of relief features (iii) The direction of the moisture bearing wind (iv) Cyclonic depression. Main features of rainfall in India are as follows: (i) Rainfall occurs only for three months during the Rainy Season. (ii) The Rains are mainly of relief type i.e., the Windward Side of the mountain receives more rainfall than the Leeward Side of the Mountain. (iii) Less rainfall is received from the other sources like the convectional rainfall and the cyclonic rainfall. (iv) Rainfall is mainly erratic in nature. (v) India being an agrarian country is dependent on rainfall which affects its economy. Key Terms Temperate zone : The region beyond the Tropic of Cancer (23 N) where the Sun is never overhead. Tropical zone : The region between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer where the Overhead Sun is experienced twice a year. October Heat: It is the condition of high temperature and humidity due to which the weather becomes oppressive i.e., hard to bear. Western Disturbances : The cyclonic depressions that originate over the Mediterranean Sea and bring good amount of rainfall in the North-Western part of India in the Winter Season. Jet Streams : Air currents which determine the arrival and departure of the Monsoons. El-Nino : It is a warm ocean current which increases the surface temperature of the sea and affects the Monsoon Winds in the Indian Ocean. 24 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Monsoon : It is derived from the Arabic word Mausim which means Season. These are Periodic Seasonal Winds and are caused due to differential heating and cooling of land and sea. Burst of the Monsoon : The sudden violent onset of rainfall in the first week of June accompanied by thundering and lightning. Retreating Monsoon : The withdrawal of Monsoon in the month of October from the Mainland of Indian SubContinent. CHAPTER-4 SOIL RESOURCES Topic-1 Types of Soil, Composition and Its Characteristics Revision Notes Soil is the uppermost thin layer of the earth s crust, made up of organic matter, minerals and weathered rocks, covering the earth surface. The process of the formation of soil is known as Pedogenesis. Different sources of nature like changing temperature, running water and wind affect the formation of soil. Soil is formed by a process called Weathering, where a parent rock material breaks down or wears and tears. Humus (decomposed vegetal and animal remains) is the main constituent of soil. Silica, clay and sand are also other constituents of soil. Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to support plant life. The important features of soil fertility is that it contains adequate amount of moisture, is rich in nutrients like Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium (NPK), contains organic matter and has sufficient depth to enable the plants to grow roots. Depending on the process of formation, soil can be categorised into- Residual or Sedentary soil and Transported soil. Residual soil is formed in situ that is formed where it is found in its original position by the breaking up of parent rocks, e.g., Black soil, Red soil, Laterite soil, etc. Soil that are transported through various agents of soil erosion like wind and running water is called Transported soil, e.g., Alluvial soil. Soil is classified into the following types- Alluvial soils, Black soils, Red soils and Laterite soils. Name of the Soil 1. Alluvial Soil (also called Riverine soil) Formation Crops grown Characteristics Areas Transported soil by the deposition of silts and sediments brought down by the rivers. -Wheat -Rice -Sugarcane -Oil Seeds (i) It is of two types- Bhangar (Old Alluvium) and Khadar (New Alluvium). (ii) It is porous and is coarse in the upper region and fine in the lower region. (iii) Rich in Potash and Lime but deficient in Nitrogen, phosphoric acid and humus (except the alluvium in the Ganga deltaic region which is rich in humus). (iv) The colour of the Alluvial Soil varies from light grey to ash grey. Its shades depend on the depth of the deposition, the texture of the materials, and the time taken for attaining maturity. -Uttar Pradesh -Punjab -Haryana -Jharkhand -Bihar -West Bengal Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 25 Name of the Soil Formation Crops grown Characteristics Areas 2. Black Soil (also called Regur soil or Black Cotton soil) In situ or Residual soil by the weathering of volcanic rocks or Igneous rocks -Cotton -Sugarcane -Jowar -Wheat -Oil seeds (i) It is fine textured. (ii) Clayey in nature. (iii) Its moisture retentive and becomes sticky when wet and forms crack when dry. (iv) Rich in Lime, Magnesium and Iron. (v) Poor in Phosphorous, Nitrogen and Organic matter. (vi) These soils are Black in colour. -Maharashtra - Gujarat -Madhya Pradesh - Andhra Pradesh -Karnataka 3. Red Soil In situ or Residual soil by the weathering of old hard Crystalline and Metamorphic Rocks -Rice -Cotton -Pulses Can be grown by using fertilizers -Tamil (i) It is porous, friable and coarse. (ii) It does not retain moisture. Nadu, Goa, (iii) Rich in Iron and Potash. Karnataka, (iv) Deficient in lime, nitrogen, Odisha and phosphorous and humus. Meghalaya (v) Responds to Manures or Fertilizers. (vi) Does not get water logged. (vii) It is red in colour due to the presence of iron oxides. 4. Laterite Soil Formed in-situ as a result of leaching under typical monsoonal conditions with high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternating wet and dry spells. Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Cashew, Tapioca and Millets (i) Highly acidic in nature. (ii) It is porous and coarse. (iii) Rich in iron. (iv) Poor in Silica, Lime, Nitrogen and Humus. (v) Red in colour. Bhangar Soil 1. Older Alluvium Soil. -Summits of Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats -Andhra Pradesh -Tamil Nadu -West Bengal -Odisha -Assam Khadar Soil 1. Newer Alluvium Soil. 2. It is found above the flood levels of rivers and is of a 2. It lies below the flood levels. terrace like structure. It is light in colour and is composed of newer 3. This soil is dark in colour and composed of lime 3. nodules or kankar and has a coarse material. deposits like silt and clay, so fine grained. 4. It is less fertile. 4. It is very fertile. Key Terms Parent Rock : It refers to the original rock from which the soil is formed. It is mainly used in the context of soil formation. Humus : It is the organic matter present in the soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals. NPK : It is the abbreviation of Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P) and Potassium (K) which is good for the fertility of the soil. Bhangar soil : It is Older Alluvium Soil and is found above the flood levels of rivers. Khadar soil : It is Newer Alluvium Soil and is found below the flood levels. Residual soil : Residual soils are formed in situ that is formed where they are found in their original position by the breaking up of parent rocks, e.g., Black soil, Red soil, Laterite soil, etc. Transported soil : Soil that is transported through various agents of soil erosion like water and wind. In-Situ: It is formed in their original position by the breaking up of parent rocks, e.g., Black Soil, Red Soil, Laterite Soil, Desert Soil etc. 26 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Topic-2 Soil Erosion-Causes, Prevention and Conservation Concepts Covered Types of Erosions-Gully, Sheet, Rill, Stream Bank, Shore, Slip Leaching Shelter Belts Revision Notes Soil erosion is the removal of the top layer of fertile soil by wind, water and human activities. Soil erosion caused by running water are(i) Sheet erosion- Large quantity of water flow in form of sheets that removes the thin layer of top soil along with vegetation covers or due to heavy rainfall and thus, erosion of soil takes place over extensive areas. (ii) Rill erosion- Due to prolonged sheet erosion in the second stage, finger shaped grooves or rills are formed over a large area, which is known as Rill erosion. (iii) Gully erosion- Removal of clayey soil along drainage lines by running water and making deep channels that erodes soil mostly in hillsides after Deforestation and Over grazing. (iv) Stream Bank erosion- The streams and rivers change their course by cutting their banks, thereby, depositing the silt loads. (v) Shore erosion- The powerful waves of the tidal waters of the sea damage and destroy the coastal areas. (vi) Slip erosion- During heavy rains, when the water is unable to penetrate into the soil by the underlying impervious rocks, causes the heavy moisture-laden soil to come down from the steep land. This process is called the Slip erosion. Sometimes, it results in a landslide. Wind erosion takes place where there is less or no vegetation due to high velocity/a strong movement of winds. When wind moves soil particles of 0.1-0.5 mm in size in bouncing or hopping way, it is known as Saltation while those which are greater than 0.5 mm and moves by rolling are called Soil Creep. In the process of Saltation, the particles less than 0.1 mm or the finer ones gets separated and transported to the long distances until the wind speed decreases. This is called Suspension. Large scale deforestation by man has been witnessed in the Outer Himalayas, the Western and Eastern Ghats for various land use like constructing railway lines, roads, buildings etc. The uncontrolled grazing of domestic animals is an important factor for causing Sheet, Gully and Rill erosion. In India, soil erosion occurs due to the following causes(i) Increasing population (ii) Erratic nature of rainfall (iii) Overgrazing by domestic animals (iv) Faulty techniques of farming (v) Topography of the region (vi) Deforestation The Indian states which are highly prone to soil erosion are Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Soil is an essential resource for agriculture. It recycles organic wastes and provides nutrients to the vegetation grown. It also influences the global climate. Therefore, soil conservation is required for the sustainable development of the country. Soil conservation is the effort made by man to prevent loss of soil from erosion or reduced fertility caused by over usage. Measures to prevent soil erosion: (i) Afforestation and Re-afforestation-Afforestation means establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no previous tree cover. Re-afforestation is planting of trees in lieu of the number of trees being cut adopting the ratio 2:1. Because of this, the roots of trees and plants hold soil together, reducing speed of running water, enabling water to get absorbed in the soil. Trees also reduces the force of winds, preventing the blowing away of soil particles. (ii) Restricted grazing of animals-Animals should be spread out to different pastures and fodder crops should be grown in large quantity. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 27 (iii) Construction of dams-Apart from checking the speed of river water and controlling river floods, construction of dams also saves soil erosion. (iv) Proper farming techniques (a) Crop rotation-It is a system of farming in which farmers grow crops cyclically to minimise consumption of particular nutrients from the soil, thus maintaining fertility of land. (b) Contour ploughing-Contours act like bunds. Ploughing along contours across the slope of the land prevents soil being washed away by rainwater or by surface run-off. (c) Terrace farming-Hill slopes are cut into a number of terraces having horizontal top and steep slopes on the back and front. It is a very effective and one of the oldest methods of soil conservation. (d) Strip cropping-In this system, large fields are divided in strips and grass is grown between the crops which reduces wind velocity and protects the top soil from erosion. (e) Shelter belts-When trees are planted in rows to create shelters along sand dunes, these rows are called Shelter belts. They help stabilizing sand dunes and prevent the desert to extend into land available for farming. In India, the government has taken special measures for soil conservation(i) Scheme of Integrated Watershed Management. (ii) Scheme for Reclamation and development of ravine areas. (iii) Scheme for Control of Shifting cultivation. (iv) National Project on Development and use of Bio-fertilizers and National Project on Quality Control implemented. (v) Rainwater Harvesting. Key Terms Soil Erosion: Removal or destruction of top soil is called Soil Erosion. Gully Erosion: Removal of clayey soil along drainage lines by running water and making deep channels, eroding soil mostly in hillsides after Deforestation and Over grazing. Leaching: Due to high rainfall, lime and silica are leached away from soil leaving Iron oxide and Aluminium compound in the soil making it acidic. Sheet Erosion: It is the slow removal of a thin layer of soil over extensive areas due to less or no vegetation by rainwater washing it away. Soil conservation: It is the effort made by man to prevent soil loss from erosion or reduced fertility caused by over usage. Shelter belts: Shelters are created by planting trees in a row to check the speed of the wind in order to reduce soil erosion. Re-afforestation: It is planting of trees in lieu of the number of trees being cut adopting the ratio 2:1. CHAPTER-5 NATURAL VEGETATION of Forests, Types of Vegetation Topic-1 Importance Concepts Covered Five Major Vegetation regions Canopy Decoction Mangrove Revision Notes Natural Vegetation refers to the plant cover that has not been disturbed over a long time and has grown naturally depending upon the climate and soil conditions of that area. On the other hand, vegetation means the plants or crops planted or cultivated by humans. 28 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Grasses, shrubs and trees constitute the natural vegetation of an area. Flora refers to plants of a particular region or period, listed by species and considered as a whole, e.g., 4000 species of plants in the Eastern Himalayas. Forest is defined as an ecosystem or assemblage of ecosystems dominated by trees and other woody vegetation. It also refers to a large tract of land covered with trees and accompanying undergrowth of shrubs, herbs and sustaining thousands of life forms. In simple words, a forest is an area with a high density of trees. Forests are one of the important natural resources. Natural resources are all the gifts of nature like Air, Water, Minerals, Trees, etc. In our day to day life, forests play an important role. They are as follows: (i) Forests are highly productive since they provide us fruits, leaves, roots, tuber of plants, woods for furniture, wood pulp for manufacturing paper. (ii) The forest animals provide food in the form of meat to the tribals living in the forest. (iii) Forests also provide products like herbs, edible plants, fibres, etc. (iv) Bamboos in the forests also provide as a means of livelihood to the tribal people as they make mats, ropes, baskets, etc., from these bamboos. (v) The forests protect from flooding by controlling the flow of water and soil erosion leading to silting. (vi) The roots of trees in the forest bind the soil firmly which prevent soil erosion. (vii) The trees absorb the carbon dioxide and release Oxygen which is used by human beings and animals. (viii) The trees also help in regulating the water cycle. (ix) The forests provide an abode and food to the wild animals. (x) It also provide recreation to humans through various Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks, etc. India has a great variety of plant diversity. India s location in Tropical latitudes supports this variety of Natural Vegetation throughout the country. This diversity is due to the following factors: (i) Temperature (ii) Sunlight (iii) Soil (iv) Relief/Topography/Location (v) Precipitation/Rainfall India can be divided into five major vegetation regions. They are(i) Tropical Evergreen Forests or Rain-forests (ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests or Monsoon Forests (iii) Tropical Desert or Swampy Forests (iv) Littoral Forests (v) Montane or Mountain vegetation Tropical Evergreen or Rain-forests : (i) Temperature between 25 C and 27 C. (ii) Amount of rainfall is more than 200 cm. (iii) Found in the western slopes of the Western Ghats, hills of North-Eastern region and in the Island groups of Lakshadweep, the Andaman and Nicobar islands. (iv) The characteristic features are : 1. They are dense and have a variety of trees and shrubs. 2. Trees reach at a height of 60 m or above. 3. Due to thick canopy of trees, herbs and grasses cannot grow. 4. These forests do not have any fixed period of time for shedding of leaves. 5. These forests produce hardwood trees. All trees do not shed their leaves at the same time. That is why these forests always appear green. (v) The main varieties of trees are Ebony, Rosewood, Mahogany, Toon, Chaplas, Gurjan, Sissoo, Telsur, Rubber, Shisham, Cinchona, etc. Tropical Deciduous Forests or Monsoon Forests : Tropical deciduous forests cover most of the forest area in India. As these forests depend on the monsoon, they are also known as monsoon forests. On the basis of the availability of the water, these forests are categorized into two types : (a) The Moist Deciduous Forests (b) The Dry Deciduous Forests (a) The Moist Deciduous Forests : (i) Rainfall between 100 cm to 200 cm. (ii) Temperature between 24 C and 27 C. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 29 (iii) Found in the regions like Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Western Ghats, and in some parts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. (iv) The main characteristic features are : 1. The trees shed their leaves from six to eight weeks during spring and early summer. 2. These forests are the most commercially exploited forests in India. 3. These forests have trees found in pure stands. 4. They provide valuable timber and other forest products. (v) The main varieties of tress found here are Sal, Teak, Arjun, Mahua, Shisham, Palas, Mulberry, Semul and Sandalwood. (b) The Dry Deciduous Forests : (i) Rainfall between 70 cm to 100 cm. (ii) Annual Temperature is between 23 C and 27 C. (iii) Found in the semi-arid areas of the country like the rain-shadow regions of Western Ghats, Aravallis etc. (iv) The main characteristic features are : 1. These forests survive in accordance with the climatic condition of that particular region. 2. The forests on the wetter regions are moist deciduous while on the drier areas, they are thorny bushes. 3. Teak and other trees are spread out in the northern part of India and in the region of higher rainfall in the Peninsular plateau along with patches of grass. 4. The trees of these forests completely shed their leaves in a definite period. (v) The main trees found there are- Teak, Sal, Tendu, Amaltas, Rosewood, Bel, Khair, etc. (vi) These forests provide timber, fruits and other valuable products. Parts of these forests are also cleared to carry out agricultural activities. Tropical Desert Forests : (i) Rainfall is less than 50 cm. (ii) Temperature between 25 C and 27 C. (iii) These trees are found in Haryana, South-Western Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Central and Eastern Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. (iv) The main characteristic features are : 1. Due to scanty rainfall, the trees grow xerophytic in nature that is adapting to survive in the environment. 2. The trees are stunted and have large patches of coarse grasses. 3. The trees have very small leaves due to lack of moisture. 4. They have scrub vegetation, that is thorny bushes. 5. The stems of these plants are fleshy which conserve water for a longer period. (v) The important trees of these forests are Date Palm, Khair, Ber, Babool, Neem, Kanju, Khejri, Cacti, Acacia, etc. (vi) The trees are economically valuable. The Ber fruit is useful for making pickle or beverage and is also eaten raw, timber is hard and durable, Date Palm is eaten raw and is used as an astringent, etc. Neem leaves and its bark are used for making many health related and beauty products. Littoral or Swampy Forests : (i) Rainfall : More than 200 cm (ii) Temperature : 26 C - 29 C (iii) These forests grow along the sea coasts, in wet marshy areas, in river deltas, in tidal or other swampy areas and are known by different names such as the tidal forests, mangroves, sundarbans, etc. The forests occurring in and around deltas are known as delta forests or swampy forests. When a tree or a shrub grows in saline coastal habitat or brackish water, it is known as Mangrove. (iv) Found in the areas around the deltas of the large rivers along the eastern coasts, in the saline swamps of Sunderbans in West Bengal, along the coasts of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. (v) The main characteristic features are : 1. These forests are dense, evergreen and of varying heights. 2. The trees have long roots submerged under water and have pores which help them to breathe during high tide. 3. The tidal trees yield hardwood which is strong and durable and is used for making boats and boxes. 4. The most important tree is the Sundari tree in the Ganga Delta from which the word Sundarbans is coined. 5. The Indian tidal or mangrove forests are considered as the largest mangrove forest in the world. 6. These mangrove forests are one of the most productive and bio-diverse wetlands on earth. 7. These forests have nicely adapted to the muddy, shifting, saline conditions and grow in the brackish marshy areas, mud flats and estuaries along the coast. (vi) The important trees are the Sundari, Gurjan, Hintal, Keora, Rhizophora, Amur, Bhara, Canes, etc. (vii) The Littoral forests are economically important too. The Mangrove trees are utilised for fuel while the 30 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Sundari trees provide hard, durable timber and is used for making boats and boxes. Montane or Mountain Vegetation : (i) Rainfall between 100 and 300 cms. (ii) Temperature between 12 C and 13 C and the humidity is between 56%-65%. (iii) These forests are found in the mountain regions having an altitude between 1000 m to 4000 m. (iv) The mountain vegetation is divided into three types according to the altitude. In areas with the highest altitude, seasonally flowering trees are found. In regions with medium-altitude, coniferous trees like pine, deodar, fir and at foothills mixed forests are found. (v) The main characteristic features are : 1. These forests are mainly found in the higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region including the hills of West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Nagaland. 2. At lower altitude, these forests are evergreen forests in which the trees are mostly branchy, leaves are broad, dense and rounded. 3. At higher altitude, the slopes are covered with Mosses, Lichens, Ferns and Creepers. 4. It provides fine wood which is of much use for construction, and making railway sleepers. 5. These forests occur in the temperate zone of the Himalayas at an altitude between 1500 and 3300 metres where the annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250 cm. 6. The Himalayan moist temperate forests cover the entire mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and Sikkim. 7. In the Peninsular region, these forests are found at an altitude of 1500 m. (vi) The important trees of the Montane forests are Indian Chestnut, Birch, Plum, Cinchona, Litsea, Magnolia, Pine, Oak, Hemlock, etc. Important Trees and their Uses : (i) Ebony : It is used for ornamental carving, making musical instruments, sports goods, piano keys, etc. (ii) Rosewood : It is used for making furniture, doors windows, musical instruments, carvings, etc. Because of durability it is often used in the martial art weaponry. It is also good for medicinal purposes like it is useful against acne. (iii) Teak : It has high oil content making it very weather resistant. It has great value as timber and is very heavy, tough and durable. It is broadly used for making furniture, houses and also ships. The bark of the teak tree is considered to be astringent and is used to treat bronchitis. (iv) Mahogany : It is very durable and is mainly used for crafting cabinets and furniture, musical instruments. It resists wood rot and is used for the construction of boat. (v) Sal : It is hard, tough and heavy wood. It is mainly used for making doors, windows, railings of bridges, beams, railway sleepers. (vi) Sandalwood : It is widely used in the cosmetic industry. It is used as perfume and its oil is used in making aromatic substances. It is also used for making ornamental objects like statues. (vii) Ber : It is hard, tough and durable wood. It is a fruit which is eaten raw as it is rich in Vitamin C and is also used to make pickle or beverage. It is used for making agricultural implements, boat ribs, charcoal, etc. (viii) Babool : It has high medicinal value. It is a source of gum and used as an emulsifier. The twigs and barks are chewed to prevent Vitamin C deficiency. Its wood is used as fire wood and charcoal and for boat building. (ix) Palas : Its leaves are used for rearing shellac worms. (x) Neem : The leaves, bark and roots of this tree have medicinal properties. It helps to cure skin infection, ulcers, allergies, etc. Its oil is used for manufacturing beauty and health products. (xi) Cinchona : Cinchona is used for increasing appetite. It is also used for blood vessel disorders including hemorrhoids, varicose veins, and leg cramps. It contains quinine, which is a chemical used to treat malaria. Cinchona bark stimulates saliva and stomach (gastric) juice secretion. (xi) Deodar : Its wood is strong, durable and tough. It is mainly used for construction and for making railway sleepers. (xii) Sundari : It is a hard, durable and strong tree. It is mainly used for making boats and for house construction. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 31 Key Terms Natural Resources : Naturally occurring materials that satisfy human needs provided being technologically accessible, culturally acceptable and economically affordable. Examples are Sunlight, Air, Water, Coal, Minerals, etc. Flora : It refers to plants of a particular region or period. Forest : It is defined as an ecosystem or assemblage of ecosystems dominated by trees and other woody vegetation. Canopy : The uppermost leafy layer of a forest, formed by the crowns of the trees and climbers. Decoction : It is a method of extraction by boiling herbal or plant material to dissolve the chemicals of the material, which may include stems, roots, bark and rhizomes. Mangrove : A Mangrove is a tree and a shrub that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. Montane : It means of or inhabiting mountainous regions. Distribution and Correlation with their Topic-2 Environment Concepts Covered Global Carbon Cycle Bio-diverse Regions Ecosystem Revision Notes India is a vast, diverse country and is one of the seventeen mega biodiverse regions of the world. India has a large variety of forest vegetation and has 600 species of hardwoods like Sal, Teak, etc. Indian forests types include Tropical Evergreen, Tropical Deciduous, Tropical Desert, Littoral Forests and Montane Vegetation. These Forests support a variety of Ecosystems with diverse Flora and Fauna. An Ecosystem is a geographic area where biotic elements such as plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as abiotic elements such as weather and landscape, interact with each other forming a community. Fauna is a term referring to all of the animal life within a specified region, time period, or both. Forests are one of the Renewable resources. Renewable resource may be defined as the type of resource that have the potential to be replaced over a time by natural process. Forests have an interrelationship with environment. Forest plays an important role in modifying climate and weather. It reduces mean annual temperature. It helps in lowering maximum temperature and raises the minimum temperature. Forest increases the precipitation of any area and controls humidity. Forests helps to prevent and control soil erosion. By reducing surface runoff, the forest vegetation helps to increase the amount of water that percolates into a soil. Forests help to present and control soil erosion. They help in the firmness and stability of the soil by checking the velocity of wind and by reducing surface runoff. Forests help in reducing floods in the hilly region as well as in the plains by reducing the volume of surface run-off. Forests have the potential to bring change in the climatic condition of a region through their influence on the Global Carbon Cycle. Trees and other green plants produce oxygen and consume Carbon dioxide. Forests also control major pollution such as water, air and noise pollution. It also influences the life of many terrestrial animals. It acts as source of food and shelter for many wild animals. Forests improve the nutrition of soil through the addition of organic matter, decomposition of leaves and penetration of plant root. Forests provide major and minor products to mankind. Major forest products include both types of woods i.e., hard woods and soft woods. 32 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Minor forest products include all products obtainable from the forests other than the wood i.e., leaves, bamboos, grasses, fibres, spices, edible products, etc. Forests also contribute in the economic development of our country. Forest products have a high commercial value as they serve as a raw material to several industries. Different activities associated to the forests provide occupation to millions of people. Key Terms Biodiverse Regions : It refers to areas containing a wide variety of plant and animal species. Ecosystem : It means a community of living organisms together with the non-living components of their environment like air, water and soil, interacting as a system. Renewable resource: It may be defined as the type of resource that have the potential to be replaced over a time by natural process. Global Carbon Cycle : It describes the exchanges of carbon between the earth s atmosphere, oceans, land and fossil fuels. Major forest products : include both types of woods i.e., hard woods and soft woods. Minor forest products : include all products obtainable from the forests other than the wood i.e., leaves, bamboos, grasses, fibres, spices, edible products, etc. Topic-3 Forest Conservation Concepts Covered Deforestation Green House Effects Joint Forest Management Social-forestry Agro-forestry Revision Notes Man, in order to satisfy his own needs, indiscriminately deforested the forested areas which led to a decline in the forest cover area. Some reasons that led to the Decline in the Forest are : (i) Increasing Population. (ii) Converting Forests into Pasture lands. (iii) Overgrazing of animals. (iv) Increasing demand for Timber. (v) Construction of Multipurpose River Valley Projects. All these reasons have adverse effects, like decline in forest productivity, occurrence of soil erosion and floods, reduction in the amount of rainfall resulting into droughts and increasing the Green House effect in the atmosphere. Forest Conservation is a need of the hour in order to combat issues raised due to deforestation. Forest Conservation does not mean the denial of use, but rather the proper use of Forest resources without causing any adverse effect on our economy or environment. In order to conserve forests, many practices have to be undertaken by the people. Some of these practices are : (i) To practice afforestation under Van Mahotsav movement or a Forest festival. (ii) To discourage cutting of trees and ensure to plant two saplings in lieu of felling of one tree i.e., Practicing Re-afforestation. (iii) Banning the practice of Shifting Cultivation prevalent amongst the Tribals. (iv) To grow trees around the Iron and Steel Industries and other Industrial Units. (v) To use Non-conventional or Renewable sources of energy like Solar energy, Tidal energy, etc. (vi) To establish Corridors between the Forests for the migration of wild animals. (vii) To make strict conservation measures and laws to check Deforestation. (viii) To encourage participation of people in Planning, Decision making and implementation of Forest Conservation Programmes. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, a Nodal agency in the Administrative structure of the Central Government, plan, promote, co-ordinate and oversee the implementation of Environmental and Forestry Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 33 Programmes. This Ministry is also the nodal agency in the country for the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP). In 1988, the Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was amended to facilitate stricter conservation measures. India is one of the few countries which has a Forest Policy since 1894. This policy was revised time to time, in 1952 and again in 1988. India launched its National Forest Policy in 1988 and led to a programme named Joint Forest Management (JFM). In order to focus on Protection, Conservation and Development of Forests, this Policy proposed that specific villages in association with the Forest Department will manage specific Forest Blocks. The other objectives of this policy are : (i) Restoration of Ecological balance. (ii) Maintenance of environmental stability. (iii) Preserving natural forests through wide variety of flora and fauna. (iv) Checking Soil erosion and the extension of Sand-dunes in the Desert areas. (v) To increase forest cover area through Extensive Afforestation and Social Forestry Programmes. (vi) To meet the basic requirements of the Rural and Tribal people by providing fuel wood, minor forest product, fodder, etc. (vii) Encouraging the efficient use of forest produce and optimum substitution of wood. (viii) Organising People s Movement in order to achieve these objectives. Even women are involved, in particular, to be a part of these movements. In 1970, India declared three major objectives for Forestry Development: (i) To reduce Soil erosion and Flooding, (ii) To supply the growing needs of the Domestic Wood Products Industries, (iii) To supply the needs of the Rural population for fuel wood, fodder, small timber, and miscellaneous forest produce. Social Forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation of barren and deforested lands with the purpose of helping in the Environmental, Social and Rural Development. It is also known as Forestry of the people, by the people and for the people . It also aims at raising plantations by the common man so as to meet the growing demand for timber, fuel wood, fodder, etc., thereby reducing pressure on traditional forest areas. Since India has dominantly a rural population and largely depends on fuel wood and other biomass for their cooking and heating, the need for a Social Forestry scheme was felt. Another scheme taken up under the Social Forestry Programme is the raising of trees on community land and not on private land. Social Forestry Scheme can be categorized into groups; Farm Forestry, Community Forestry, Extension Forestry and Agro-Forestry. The Government through these schemes aims at providing an entire community and not an individual and takes the responsibility of providing seedlings and fertilizers. As a result the community takes the responsibility of saving and protecting the trees. The Objectives of Social Forestry are : (i) To improve environment for protecting farming from adverse climatic conditions. (ii) To increase the supply of fuel wood, fodder for livestock, small timber for Rural housing, Minor Forest products for Local Industries. (iii) To enhance the natural scenic beauty of the area. (iv) To provide employment opportunities to the unskilled workers. (v) To utilize rehabilitated land or restored land for better production. (vi) To create forests as recreational centres for the people. (vii) To develop local cottage industries by providing raw materials. (viii) Encourage afforestation to conserve soil and water efficiently. (ix) Its mission is to convert urban and industrial areas into Green Belts. (x) To enhance the quality of life and raise the standard of living of both the Urban and the Rural population. Agro-forestry may be defined as a sustainable land use system that maintains or increases the total yield by combining food crop together with forest tree and livestock ranching on the same unit of land, using management practices that take care of the social and cultural characteristic of the local people and the economic and ecological conditions of the local area. It is a part of Social Forestry. 34 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X In Agro-Forestry growing of forest tree along with agriculture crop on the same piece of land is carried out. It is an intermediate stage between Forestry and Agriculture. It aims to provide soil conservation to improve the growth of forest products and agricultural crops together. Objectives of Agro-Forestry : (i) To discourage deforestation and reduce pressure on forests for obtaining fuel woods and other forest produce. (ii) To restore soil fertility by checking Soil erosion. (iii) By proper utilization of farm resources the ecological balance to be maintained. (iv) To reduce poverty by encouraging increased production of wood and other tree products for self consumption and sale. Most of the forest resources are owned by the Government of India. For the purpose of administration, forests are classified into three types as the Reserved Forests (RF), the Protected Forests (PF), and the Unclassed Forests (UF). Reserved and protected forests are together called Permanent Forest Estates . Key Terms Deforestation : It is the clearing or thinning of Forests by humans. Multipurpose River Valley Projects : It refers to major river valley projects with an aim to meet the basic requirements of irrigation for agriculture, electricity for Industries and Flood control. Green House Effect : It is the warming of Earth s temperature. It is caused by gases in the air that trap energy from the sun. These heat-trapping gases are called Greenhouse Gases. The most common Greenhouse Gases are Water vapour, Carbon-dioxide and Methane. Joint Forest Management (JFM) : It is the official and popular term in India for partnerships in Forest movement involving both the State Forest Departments and Local Communities. Afforestation : Planting trees in an area where there were never a forest or plantation; it s a method to create a new forest. It makes Earth a better place by reducing Carbon dioxide in atmosphere. Re-afforestation : It is planting of trees in lieu of the number of trees being cut adopting the ratio 2:1. Social Forestry : It means the management and protection of forests and afforestation of barren and deforested lands with the purpose of helping in the Environmental, Social and Rural Development. Agro-Forestry : A sustainable land use system that maintains or increases the total yield by combining food crop together with forest tree and livestock ranching on the same unit of land, using management practices that take care of the social and cultural characteristic of the local people and the economic and ecological condition of the local area. Reserved Forests (RF) : These are permanently earmarked either for production of timber or other forest produce. In Reserved Forests all activities are prohibited unless permitted. Protected Forests (PF) : The Forests in which right of grazing and cultivation are allowed subject to a few minor restriction. Unclassed Forests (UF) : All the Forests and Wastelands other than the Reserved and Protected Forests are considered Unclassed Forests. Permanent Forest Estates: Reserved and Protected forests are together called Permanent Forest Estates. CHAPTER-6 WATER RESOURCES Topic-1 Sources of Water and Need for Conservation Concepts Covered Watershed Management Aquifer Percolation Pits Surface Runoff Harvesting Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Regional Names of Rainwater Harvesting Systems Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 35 Revision Notes Our Earth is surrounded by water from all sides but only about 0.03% of water is available to us as Freshwater in Rivers, Lakes and Streams. About 97% water supply is from the Oceans and Seas and due to high salt content water is unfit for drinking and for agricultural purposes. Sources of Fresh Water : (i) Surface Water (ii) Ground Water (iii) Rain Water Surface Water : Water that collects on the surface of the earth such as Oceans, Seas, Lakes, Rivers, Streams etc. Ground Water : Water from rainfall that collects or flows beneath the Earth s surface, sinks into the soil, filling the porous cracks and spaces in soil, sediment and rocks. Groundwater constitutes about 0.66% of usable water on the Earth. Water is the most essential element on earth. Life is impossible without it. The Increasing Population, Industrialization, Urbanisation and Agricultural Irrigation, have reduced the per capita availability of water. We need to Conserve Water due to the following reasons : (i) High demand of water due to Increasing Population is leading to the lowering of the ground water levels. (ii) Rainfall in India is seasonal, erratic and unreliable thus, the farmers cannot wholly depend on rain. (iii) More than 90% of water is utilized for irrigation. (iv) The Industries also utilizes a lot of water and pollute it too. (v) A large amount of ground water like Lakes, Rivers, Streams, etc. are polluted which cannot be used without its proper treatment. (vi) Scanty rainfall affects the growth of vegetation which results in drought and lowering of ground water levels. (vii) Water is essential for generating Hydro-electric power. In order to overcome the shortage of water due to its increasing demands, we need to manage our water resources. A number of practices have been initiated and measures have been adopted to conserve water effectively. Some of these effective measures are- Rainwater Harvesting, Watershed Management, Water Saving Technologies, Recycling of Water and Prevention of Water Pollution. Rainwater harvesting is a technique through which rainwater is collected from surfaces on which rain falls, filtering it and then storing it for future use. In other words, it is a technique of increasing the recharge of ground water by capturing and storing Rain water. It includes activities that are aimed at : (i) Harvesting surface and groundwater. (ii) Prevention of losses through evaporation and seepage. (iii) Other techniques aimed at conservation and efficient utilization of limited water endowment. Rain water harvesting has become a necessity and we need to understand its value by making optimum use of rainwater where it falls. The main objective of rainwater harvesting is to make water available for future use and to avoid flooding of roads. Water harvesting has many advantages like: (i) No land is wasted for storage purpose (ii) No population displacement is required (iii) Ground water is not directly exposed to evaporation and pollution increases the productivity of aquifer (iv) Reduces soil erosion (v) Recharges Groundwater resource In olden days there was different water harvesting mechanisms carried out in different regions of the country. They were(i) Surface Runoff Harvesting (ii) Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting In olden days in different parts of the country, rainwater storing mechanisms were known by different names. They were called Water Harvesting in Western Himalayas- KUL / GUL. Kul in Western Himalayas, Zing in Ladakh, Baolis in the Gangetic Plains, Johads in Central India and Rajasthan, Surangam in Western Ghats, Korambu in the Eastern Ghats and Bhandaras in Deccan Plateau. Watershed Management refers to the efficient management and conservation of both the surface and groundwater resources. It includes prevention of runoff as well as storage and recharge of groundwater by various methods like percolation pits, recharge wells, borewells, dug wells, etc. The elements of Water Harvesting mechanisms are as follows : (i) Catchments : The catchment of a water harvesting system is the surface drainage which collects rainfall. 36 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X (ii) Conduits : These are the pipelines or drains that carry rainwater from the catchment or rooftop area to the harvesting system. (iii) Storage Facility : Rainwater can be stored in any available storage container like, Masonry or Plastic tanks, RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete), etc. (iv) Recharge Facility : Rainwater can be used to recharge groundwater aquifers through any suitable structures like Dug wells, Borewells, Recharge Trenches and Recharge Pits. Key Terms Surface Water : Water that is available on land in form of Rivers, Oceans, Seas, Lakes and Ponds. Ground Water : Underground water that seeps into soil and is located in large aquifers under the ground. Industrialisation : Process by which an economy is transformed from agriculture to manufacturing goods with help of machines in factories thus replacing manual labour by mechanized mass production. Urbanisation : Growth in number of people living in town and cities. Rainwater harvesting : It is a technique through which rainwater is collected from surfaces, filtering it and then storing it for future use. Watershed Management : It refers to the efficient management and conservation of both the surface and groundwater resources. Aquifer : An underground layer of permeable rock, sediment or soil that yields water. Percolation Pits : It is used to collect rain water by percolation through the bottom or sides of the pits into surrounding soils. Surface runoff harvesting : System of catching and conserving rainwater where it falls that includes both natural and man- made surface for its eventual reuse. Rooftop rainwater harvesting : It is the technique through which rain water is captured from the Roof catchments and stored in Reservoirs. Topic-2 Importance and Methods of Irrigation Concepts Covered Persian-wheel Method Wells Tube-Well Irrigation Inundation Canals Perennial Canals Drip Irrigation Sprinkler Irrigation Revision Notes Irrigation refers to the process by which a controlled amount of water is artificially supplied to the plants at regular intervals to help in the production of crops. In other words, Irrigation is the supply of water to the plants through artificial means such as wells, tanks, tube wells, canals, from the sources of water like surface water or ground water. Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy and about 70% people are engaged in it. 92% of water is utilized for irrigating the agricultural fields. Though rainfall is still an important source of water for a successful farming yet these artificial means of irrigation support farming to a large extent. Irrigation is the most essential requirement for the development of agriculture in India due to the following reasons : (i) Uncertainty of rainfall. (ii) Uneven distribution of rainfall. (iii) Requirement of different quantities of water for various crops for their growth. (iv) Dependence of crops on rainfall. (v) Utilization of river water effectively. (vi) To increase or maximise production. There are various methods of irrigation- Traditional and Modern methods. Traditional methods of irrigation includes wells, tanks and inundation canals and modern methods include tube wells, perennial canals, drip irrigation, spray irrigation, furrow irrigation and sprinkler irrigation. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 37 I. Well irrigation is the oldest method of irrigation. A well is a hole, dug in the ground to obtain the underground water. It is generally carried out in the places where the soil is soft and easy to dig. Well irrigation is practised in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. There are different methods of lifting water from the wells for irrigation in India. They are : (i) Persian Wheel Method. (ii) Lever Method. (iii) Inclined Method. There are many advantages and disadvantages of Well Irrigation. Advantages of Well Irrigation : (i) Simplest and cheapest method. (ii) Can be dug anywhere where the soil is soft. (iii) Oxen kept for ploughing of field can be utilized for drawing water from the wheel at no extra cost. (iv) By using pumps and tube wells, water can be lifted from great depths. Disadvantages of Well Irrigation: (i) It is difficult to dig wells in the hilly regions and in the rocky areas of Southern Peninsula. (ii) Due to uneven distribution of underground water resources in different areas, wells do not function effectively. (iii) Owing to excessive withdrawal of underground water and lowering of water table, the conventional wells dry up. Tube wells are deeper wells from where the water is lifted from a great depth of 20 m - 30 m by using power pumps. The tube wells can be drilled in places which have the following conditions : (i) Availability of plenty of water. (ii) Soft soil, level land and fertile area. (iii) Availability of cheap electricity at a regular basis to run tube wells. Advantages of Tube Well Irrigation : (i) It is able to irrigate a larger agricultural land. (ii) Large amount of underground water is easily available. (iii) It is reliable during dry season when the surface water dries up since the tube well is drilled deeper up to the permanent water table. (iv) A good amount of water can be pulled out in a short period of time. (v) They have played important role in the Green Revolution. Disadvantages of Tube Well Irrigation : (i) Irrigation is not possible if the groundwater is brackish. (ii) It requires cheap and cost effective power which is not available in most of the states. (iii) Irrigation is not possible if the underground water level is low. (iv) Excessive use of tube well leads to lowering of groundwater level. Tube well irrigation is mainly prevalent in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. II. Canal is an important and effective method of irrigation in India. Canal irrigation is mainly concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. Since digging is difficult in the rocky and uneven surfaces of land, canals are practically absent in the Southern Peninsular region. There are two types of Canals in India : (i) Inundation Canal (ii) Perennial Canal Inundation Canals are those Canals which are taken out directly from the rivers without any regulating systems like barrage or dam. This type of canal provides water for irrigation only during the rainy season and at times of flood. Since the level of water drops after the rainy season is over, the canal dries up and thus it has limited use. Perennial Canals are those Canals which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a dam or a barrage across the river. These Canals help to irrigate large areas and can draw water throughout the year. Today in India most of the canals are Perennial. Canal irrigation is practiced in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh has constructed a large number of canals to irrigate around 3,091 thousand hectares of land which is about 30.91% of the total canal irrigated area of the country. 38 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X The important canals of Uttar Pradesh are Upper Ganga Canal, Lower Ganga Canal, Sharda Canal, Eastern Yamuna Canal, Agra Canal and Betwa Canal. The important canals in Punjab are Upper Bari Doab Canal, Sirhind Canal, Bhakra Canal, Bist Doab Canal. In Haryana, the Western Yamuna Canal, Bhakra Canal, Jui Canal and Gurgaon Canal are the main canals. The important canals of Rajasthan are Indira Gandhi Canal, Gang or Bikaner Canal and Chambal Canal Projects. Advantages of Canal Irrigation : (i) The perennial canals provide constant supply of water and save the crops from drought situations. (ii) Canal irrigation has proved to be a boon to the sandy areas of Rajasthan which are yielding good agricultural crops. (iii) Canal irrigation has converted Punjab and Haryana into the Granary of the country . (iv) Canals carry a lot of sediment brought down by the rivers which get deposited in the agricultural fields and add to the fertility of the soil. (v) Although the initial investment for constructing a canal is high but it is quite cheap in the long run. Disadvantages of Canal Irrigation : (i) During rainy season, many canals overflow and flood the already cultivated areas. (ii) In areas where the water is excessively flowing in fields, it raises the ground water level and results in bringing the alkaline salts to the surface, thereby making the field unfit for agriculture or unproductive. (iii) Due to waterlogging, the capacity of soil to absorb water reduces and thus ruins the standing crops, stored grains, etc. (iv) Canal irrigation is suitable mainly in plain areas. III. Tank Irrigation comprises an important source of irrigation mainly in the southern part of the country. Tank Irrigation is one of the oldest irrigation systems in India. It is mainly carried out in the rocky plateau region of South India where the rainfall is highly seasonal and uneven. Tank Irrigation is practiced in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, etc. Tank irrigation is mainly prevalent in South India due to the following reasons : (i) Due to hard rocks, non-porous and rocky surface the water doesn t penetrate through the layers of the soil. There is no loss of water through seepage. (ii) The Deccan terrain is uneven with many natural depressions which facilitate the construction of tanks. Advantages of Tank Irrigation: (i) It is inexpensive as there are mostly natural depressions. (ii) It is highly beneficial in the uneven rocky plateau of Deccan since rainfall is seasonal. (iii) Since wells and tube wells cannot be dug in the rocky surface of the Deccan Plateau, tanks are easily constructed. Disadvantages of Tank Irrigation: (i) In the absence of rainwater during dry season, the tanks become dry and fail to provide water for irrigation. (ii) Due to deposition of sediments, the tanks get silted up soon and de-silting is necessary for maintaining the storing capacity of tank. (iii) Tanks occupy large fertile areas which otherwise could be used for agricultural purposes. (iv) Since tanks are very extensive and shallow, huge quantities of stored water go waste as it gets evaporated or sinks underground. The Conventional System of Irrigation or the Traditional Method of Irrigation has a number of disadvantages. They are : (i) These method are not dependable as rainfall is seasonal. (ii) Waterlogging is caused in the low lying agricultural fields due to the flowing of excess water which damage the crops and gives poor yield. (iii) Due to accumulation of salts in arid and semi-arid regions of India, large tract of lands are left barren and cannot be utilized for cultivation. Modern methods of/irrigation are efficient and supply water to the fields more uniformly as compared to the Traditional Methods of Irrigation. The important modern methods of Irrigation are : (i) Drip Irrigation : This method is considered to be the most efficient and advanced system of irrigation. It supplies the water to the roots of the plants slowly through pipes, valves, tubing, etc. and thus saves water and fertilizer. This helps in the reduction of evaporation. (ii) Sprinkler Irrigation : It is a method by which water is supplied to the plants uniformly through a nozzle fitted in a pipe. It is widely used in the arid areas as it checks and controls the wastage of water through evaporation and seepage. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 39 One advantage of this type of irrigation is that there is no loss of water through evaporation and seepage and one disadvantage is that it is expensive and can water only a small area. (iii) Furrow Irrigation : It is a type of surface irrigation in which furrows are dug between the rows of the crops and water is evenly distributed to the entire field. It is one of the oldest methods of irrigation and is cheap. (iv) Spray Irrigation : In this type of irrigation, water is shot from high pressure sprayers onto the crops through a long hose pipe. It is expensive but utilizes water more efficiently. Since it is sprayed so a good amount of water gets evaporated. Key Terms Irrigation : It is the supply of water to the plants through artificial methods from Wells, Tanks, Tube-wells, Canals, etc. Well : A pit or a hole created in the ground by digging, boring or drilling to access groundwater. It is drawn by a pump or by a pulley. Persian Wheel Method : It is a mechanical water lifting device operated by draught animals like bullocks, buffaloes or camels. Tube-well : Tube-wells are deeper wells from where the water is lifted from a great depth of 20-30 m by the use of power pumps. Inundation Canals : These are those canals which are taken out directly from the rivers without any regulating systems like barrage or dam. Perennial Canals : These are those Canals which taken off from Perennial Rivers by Constructing a Dam or a Barrage across the River. Drip Irrigation : It supplies the water to the roots of the plants slowly through pipes, valves, tubing, etc. and thus saves water and fertilizer. Sprinkler Irrigation : It is a method by which water is supplied to the plants uniformly through a nozzle fitted in a pipe. CHAPTER-7 MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES Topic-1 Mineral Resources Concepts Covered Metallic & Non-Metallic Minerals Iron Ore Manganese Copper Bauxite Limestone Revision Notes Minerals are defined as solid, inorganic, naturally occurring substances with a definite chemical and physical properties and general structure. Minerals are very important because: (i) They are the source of raw materials and form the basis for industries. (ii) They generate employment in the Mining Sector. (iii) They are the source of energy/power e.g. coal and petroleum. (iv) Minerals also help to earn foreign exchange. Minerals are classified into two categories: (i) Metallic minerals (ii) Non-metallic minerals. (i) Metallic minerals are those minerals which can be melted to obtain new products like Iron, Copper, Bauxite, Tin, Gold, Manganese, etc. These minerals are usually hard, ductile and malleable and are associated with igneous rocks. Metallic minerals have lustre or shine of their own. They are further categorised into: (a) Ferrous Minerals 40 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X (b) Non-ferrous Minerals Ferrous minerals are those which have Iron content like Iron ore whereas Non-ferrous Minerals do not have Iron content like Bauxite, Copper, Gold, etc. (ii) Non-metallic minerals are either organic or inorganic in origin. They are generally associated with Sedimentary Rocks. They do not have metallic lustre and break easily. Non-metallic minerals are non-malleable. They are further classified as : (a) Organic non-metallic minerals (b) Inorganic non-metallic minerals. Organic non-metallic minerals include fossil fuels and inorganic non-metallic minerals include Mica, Graphite, Limestone, etc. Some unique characteristics of minerals are(i) They are not evenly distributed. (ii) They are exhaustible. (iii) They have inverse relationship in quality and quantity. India is rich in mineral deposits. A wide variety of minerals like Iron, Bauxite, Mica, Copper, Gold, Chromite, Manganese, Limestone, etc. Iron Ore: India is rich in Iron deposits and is the largest producer of it in Asia. The Minerals having a very high percentage of a particular metal and the metal can be profitably extracted from it are called ores. Basically, ores are the raw materials for making metals. For example, Iron ore to obtain Iron, Bauxite to obtain Aluminium, etc. In India four varieties of Iron ore are found: (i) Magnetite: It is the finest Iron ore and contains more than 70% of Iron. It has excellent magnetic qualities. It is Brown to Blackish in colour and also called the Black Ore. (ii) Haematite: It is the most important industrial Iron ore. It contains about 60% to 70% pure Iron. It is Reddish in colour and is also called the Red Ore. (iii) Limonite: It contains about 40% to 60% Iron. It is a low-quality Iron ore. It is Yellowish to Yellowish Brown in colour. (iv) Siderite: It contains many impurities and has Iron content of about 40% to 50%. It is a residual ore. It is a carbonate of Iron and is found near Coal fields. The primary use of Iron ore is in the production of Iron and Steel. Iron ore is usually smelted to produce pig Iron (metallic Iron) used to make Steel. It is alloyed with other elements to make it strong and hard and then utilized for Construction, Automobile Manufacturing, etc. Uses of Iron ore : (i) Used in Airplanes, Beams used in the Construction purposes. (ii) Manufacturing Automobiles, Trains, Trucks, etc. (iii) Manufacturing Metallurgy products, Magnets, etc. (iv) Used in Appliances and Surgical Instruments in the form of Steel. (v) Radioactive Iron is used in Medicine as Tracer element. (vi) Iron blue is used in Blueprints, Inks, Paints, Enamels, Crayons, Linoleum, etc. Iron Ore is found in the deposit areas of the Indian states of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Goa, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Singhbhum, Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj and Sundargarh districts of India have large deposits of Iron ore. Iron ore is exported to the countries like Italy, Iran, China, Japan, etc. The main exporting ports are Marmagao of Goa and Visakhapatnam of Andhra Pradesh. Manganese is an important Ferro-allied ore mined in India. It is hard, black and Iron like metal, an important raw material for smelting of Iron ore and is used in the manufacture of steel. Uses of Manganese: (i) It makes Steel tough and hard and is Rust resistant. (ii) It is used in manufacture of Chemical and Electrical Equipment. (iii) It is used to manufacture Coloured Glass. (iv) It is used in Chemical Industries for manufacturing Bleaching powder. (v) It is used in Dry cell batteries. (vi) Manganese is also used to manufacture vital Enzymes for the metabolism of Fats and Proteins. (vii) Manganese is also used to Regulate blood sugar levels, supports immune system, involved in bone development and reproduction. (viii) It is useful in plant growth too as it reduces nitrates in green plants and algae. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 41 (ix) It is an essential trace element in higher animals. The important Manganese producing areas in India are: Odisha, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Telangana, Jharkhand and Rajasthan. The main buyers of Manganese from India are the countries of USA, Japan, France, The Netherlands, UK, Germany and Belgium. Copper is an important non-ferrous metal. It is a good conductor of electricity and is ductile. Copper is found in old as well as young rock formations and occurs as veins and as bedded deposits. Copper contains a very small percentage of metal and thus copper mining is an expensive and tiring process. Uses of Copper: (i) Since Copper is a good conductor of electricity, it is used for making electric wires. (ii) It is also used in Automobiles and in Defence Industries. (iii) It is alloyed with Nickel and Iron to make Stainless Steel. (iv) It is alloyed with Aluminium to make Duralumin. (v) When it is alloyed with Zinc, it is called Brass and when alloyed with Tin, it is called Bronze. (vi) Copper is also used in building construction, plumbing and in ship building. India has low grade Copper ore and thus imports from the countries of USA, Canada, Japan, Mexico and Zimbabwe. The major Copper Mines are in Khetri in Rajasthan, Singhbhum in Bihar and Malanjkhand in Madhya Pradesh. Besides these, Guntoor in Andhra Pradesh and Nagpur in Maharashtra. Bauxite is an important ore of Aluminium. It is mixed with Sand and Iron oxide. It is sticky like clay and is found in the tertiary deposits of the Peninsular Plateau. Bauxite has about 60% - 70% of Aluminium oxide and by melting it, Aluminium is obtained. India has a huge deposit of Bauxite and ranks 5th in the World Production. The largest integrated Aluminium Plant in India is at Renukoot in Uttar Pradesh. It gets its supply from Amarkantak Plateau of Madhya Pradesh and Ranchi of Jharkhand. Uses of Bauxite : (i) Bauxite is Rust resistant, strong and lightweight metal. (ii) It is mainly used in Aircrafts, Automobiles, Shipping Industry, Household Appliances, Rail Wagons, Coaches, etc. (iii) Bauxite is a good conductor of electricity and is used in Electrical Equipment Industries. (iv) It is also used in making Mirrors, Headlight Reflectors and in Telescopes. The main deposits are in the states of Odisha, Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in India. Limestone: It is an Inorganic non-metallic mineral. It is a type of Sedimentary Rock. Uses of Limestone: (i) It is used in the Cement Industry as a Basic Raw material. (ii) It is used as a Flux in the Iron and Steel Industry. (iii) It is used in the production of Chemical, Paper, Glass and Fertilizers. Major Limestone producing areas are the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand in India. Key Terms Minerals : They are defined as solid, inorganic, naturally occurring substances with a definite chemical and physical properties and general structure. Metallic Minerals : These are those minerals which can be melted to obtain new products like Iron, Copper, Bauxite, Tin, Gold, Manganese, etc. Non-metallic Minerals : They are either Organic or In-organic in origin, associated with Sedimentary Rocks and are not malleable. Ore: The Minerals having a very high percentage of a particular metal and the metal can be profitably extracted from it are called ores. Basically, ores are the raw materials for making metals. For example, Iron ore to obtain Iron, Bauxite to obtain Aluminium, etc. Magnetite : It is the finest quality of Iron ore with more than 70% of Iron and possesses magnetic property. It is Brown to Blackish in colour and also called the Black Ore. 42 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Haematite: It is the most important industrial Iron ore. It contains about 60 % to 70 % Pure Iron. It is Reddish in colour and is also called the Red Ore. Limonite : It contains 40% to 60% of Iron. It is a low quality Iron ore. It is Yellowish to Yellowish Brown in colour Siderite : It contains 40%-50% Iron content and a Residual ore. It is a Carbonate of Iron and is found near Coal Fields. Metallurgy : It is a Science that deals with the Nature, Uses, Production and Purification of Metal. It is the technique through which rain water is captured from the Roof catchments and stored in Reservoirs. Topic-2 Conventional Sources of Energy Concepts Covered Coal-Gondwana Coalfields, Damodar Valley, Types of Coal Petroleum-Oil Refineries Natural Gas Revision Notes Conventional sources of energy are those sources of energy which are Non-renewable, i.e., cannot be replenished once they are consumed. Conventional sources of energy include: (i) Coal (ii) Petroleum (iii) Natural Gas (iv) Hydel power or Electricity Conventional sources of energy are hazardous to environment as they cause pollution. This source of energy is expensive. (i) Coal : Coal is an organic sedimentary rock and is formed due to the accumulation and preservation of plant materials in a swamp envIronment, deltaic regions, coastal plains, etc. Coal is a combustible rock and an important Fossil fuel but its reserves have depleted in the recent times due to its constant demand. Coal is widely used and the most important use is for the generation of Electricity. India ranks third in the world in the production of Coal. Coal is a bulky material, which loses weight on use as it is reduced to ash. Therefore, Heavy Industries and Thermal Power Stations are located on or near the Coalfields. Raniganj in West Bengal is the oldest coalfield in India while Jharia in Jharkhand is the largest coalfield in India. In India, Coal belongs to two geological ages(i) The Gondwana Coalfields (ii) The Tertiary Coalfields The Gondwana Coalfields: They are a little over 200 million years in age and mainly of bituminous type. They makes up to 98% of the total reserves in India and is extensively available unlike Anthracite coal. The extensive resources of Gondwana Coal are located in: The Damodar Valley (West Bengal Jharkhand): Jharia, Raniganj and Bokaro are important Coalfields. Apart from these, they are also found in the Godavari valley, the Mahanadi valley, the Son valley and the Wardha valley. The main advantages of Coal are : (i) It is a source of direct heat and energy for Domestic purposes. (ii) It is one of the cheapest forms of energy. (iii) It provides numerous raw materials to Chemical Industries like Benzole, Ammonia, Coal Tar, Coal Gas, etc. (iv) Coal is also a source of many by-products like Coke, Tar, Ammonium sulphate, Phenol, Naphthalene, Benzene, etc. The main disadvantages of Coal are : (i) Coal releases Carbon dioxide which affects the environment leading to Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Global Warming Effect. (ii) The Coal reserves in India are concentrated in Chhota Nagpur region. (iii) The transportation cost of Coal is significantly high. (iv) Coal reserves are limited in India. (v) Coal found in India is of poor quality. Uses of Coal : (i) It is used primarily as an energy source either for heat or electricity. (ii) It is used to run Railway locomotives, Machines, Dynamos and Ship engines. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 43 (iii) It is used to produce electricity. Out of the various uses of Coal, Thermal Power Generation is the most important. (iv) Coal is essentially a requirement for the Iron and Steel Industries. (v) It is also used for building materials like Burning of Bricks, Potteries, in Iron and Brass Foundries, etc. On the basis of the amount of Carbon content, coal may be classified into four varieties or types as: (a) Anthracite (b) Bituminous (c) Lignite (d) Peat (a) Anthracite Coal : (i) It is the highest quality of Coal. It is a hard and compressed variety of coal with highest Carbon content of 90%. (ii) It is associated with strongly transformed Sedimentary Rocks which were subjected to high pressure and temperature inside the Earth. (iii) It ignites with difficulty but burns for a long time with a smokeless flame. (iv) It is lustrous, shiny and Jet Black in colour. (v) It has a heating value and leaves behind little ash after burning. (vi) It has high calorific value and is good for domestic use since it is smokeless. (vii) Anthracite Coal is found only in Jammu and Kashmir. (b) Bituminous Coal : (i) It is a Black, hard, brittle and compact coal with 50% to 80% of Carbon content in it. (ii) Due to high carbon content its calorific value is very high and it has low moisture content. (iii) It is used as Steam Coal, Household Coal, Coking Coal, Gas Coal, etc. (iv) Steam Coal is the best bituminous coal since it contains 80% carbon in it. (v) Bituminous Coal is Black and lustrous and is a household Coal as it is widely used for domestic purposes. (vi) It is relatively a soft Coal and contains tar like substance called bitumen. (vii) The highest grade Bituminous Coal is the Coking coal and is an important ingredient in Iron and Steel Industry used for Smelting in the Blast furnaces. (viii) Bituminous Coal is found in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. (c) Lignite Coal : (i) Lignite is also referred to as Brown Coal. (ii) It is a soft Brown combustible Sedimentary Rock. (iii) It is a low grade Coal due to its relative low heat content. (iv) It has a carbon content of only 40%. (v) It has high moisture content and is less combustible. (vi) It is found in Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Kerala, West Bengal and Puducherry. (d) Peat Coal : (i) Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetative or organic matter which has undergone varying degree of decomposition and carbonisation. (ii) It contains high moisture and small percentage of volatile matter. (iii) It has less Carbon content and is of inferior grade. (iv) The formation of Peat is the first step in the geological formation of other Fossil fuels. (v) It is found in the regions of the Nilgiri Mountain, in the Kashmir Valley and in the Swampy areas of Coastal Plains. (ii) Petroleum : Petroleum is derived from the Greek words Petra meaning rock and oleum which means oil. It is a naturally occurring liquid found beneath the Earth s surface. It is a combination or mixture of hydrocarbons of organic compounds. Petroleum is a fossil fuel which is formed when huge quantities of dead organisms are buried beneath the sedimentary rock like shale, limestone, sandstone. Therefore, it is also called Mineral oil. It is called Liquid Gold because it is in a liquid form and has a high commercial value like gold. Petroleum includes all Liquid, Gaseous and Solid Hydrocarbons. It is crude oil as a liquid, petroleum gas is called the natural gas and the solid forms of Petroleum are called Tar, Bitumen, Asphalt, etc. Some of the products of Petroleum are Petrol, Diesel, Lubricants, Paraffin wax, Slack wax, Tar, Kerosene, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), etc. 44 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X By-products of petroleum are: Fertilizer, Petroleum jelly, Insecticide, Soap, Linoleum, Perfume, etc. Advantages of Petroleum : (i) Petroleum has high density as it can generate 10,000 K cal of energy from 1 kg of burnt oil. (ii) Extraction of oil is easy and inexpensive due to new technologies used. (iii) Petroleum in the liquid form can be transported to long distances through pipes or vehicles. (iv) It has been the primary energy resource of all power plants and has broad areas for applications and thus has high demands for energy. (v) It is widely used as fuel for transportation on land, on sea and in the air. (vi) Petroleum is used for power generation. (vii) Its fuel derivatives include Ethane, Diesel, Gasoline, Kerosene and LPG. (viii) Petrochemicals are chemical products that are derived from Petroleum after Refining. (ix) Some examples of petrochemical products are: Fertilizers, Gasoline, Synthetic rubber, Synthetic fibre, Explosives, Dyes, Crayons, Paraffin wax, Pesticides, Perfume, Paints, Varnishes, Phenol, PVC, Lubricating oil, Printing ink, Film photography, Carbon black, Polyester, Safety glass, Herbicides, Detergents, Cosmetics, etc. Disadvantages of Petroleum : (i) Petroleum is an expensive product and is in high demand due to its limited supply. (ii) It is a Natural Fossil fuel and Non-renewable. (iii) It is not envIronment friendly as its burning and extracting generates Greenhouse Gases that lead to pollution and Global Warming. (iv) It is highly inflammable and can cause fire. (v) It is harmful to the Marine animals as during the Extraction and Transportation of Oil if the Oil spills in water, the Marine animals die. Oil Refineries : Oil refineries are industrial units where Crude oil is refined and processed to produce useful products like Gasoline, Petroleum Naphtha, LPG and Diesel oil, Asphalt Base, etc. There are 23 Oil refineries in India of which 20 are in the Public Sector and 3 refineries in the Private Sector or the Joint Sector. In India, the maximum oil production is from the Mumbai High offshore zone. The main oil deposits in India, in accordance to their importance are : (i) Mumbai High (ii) Oilfields of the Eastern Region (iii) Oilfields of the Western Region Mumbai High produces superior quality of crude oil as compared to the Middle East countries. The Oil in Mumbai High is drilled with the drill-ship named Sagar Samrat which has a maximum drill depth of about 20,000 feet. Oil refineries are located close to the oil fields or near ports due to the following reasons: 1. To minimise the cost of transport. 2. To avoid transportation of mineral oil to the interior places of the country as it is highly inflammable. Some of the Oil refineries of India are: Mathura Refinery, Mumbai Refinery, Haldia Refinery, Barauni Refinery, Panipat Refinery, Digboi Refinery, Visakhapatnam Refinery, Kochi Refinery, Jamnagar Refinery, etc. The oldest Oilfield in India is Digboi oilfield situated in the Eastern Region of India. The other Oilfields in this region are: Moran, Bapapung, Hausanpung and Hugirijang. Cambay Basin in Gujarat is the main oilfield in the Western Region of India. The other important oilfields in Gujarat are Kalol, Koyali, Kosamba, Sanad, Kathana, Ankleshwar and Navagaon. (iii) Natural Gas : Natural Gas is a mixture of gases which are rich in hydrocarbons. These gases are- Methane, Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide, etc., found in the atmosphere. Natural Gas reserves are beneath the Earth s surface near the Crude Oil deposits. It is never used in its pure form. It is processed and then converted into cleaner fuel for consumption. It is mainly used as a fuel for generating electricity and heat. Natural gas in compressed form is used as fuel for vehicles which is known as CNG (Compressed Natural Gas). Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is the gas which is supplied to Household for Cooking purposes. It is a by-product acquired after Refining the Crude Oil. The main constituents of LPG are Butane and Propane and are flammable mixtures of Hydrocarbon gases. LPG is used as fuel for domestic purposes like for Cooking and in Vehicles. The gas cylinder contains ethyl mercaptan, which gives out the foul smell, is added to LPG on purpose so that if there is any leakage it can be easily detected. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 45 LPG is also being replaced in some places with PNG (Piped Natural Gas) which is supplied through pipeline instead of storing in the Cylinder. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fuel which is used in place of Petrol, Diesel and LPG. In CNG, Methane is stored at high pressure. 3/4th of Natural Gas in India comes from Mumbai High and the remaining from Assam, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Tripura. Advantages of Natural Gas : (i) Natural Gas is considered to be environment friendly as it emits less Carbon, i.e., about 60%-90% less smog producing pollutants. (ii) It can be stored safely and can be transported efficiently through Pipelines, Cylinders, etc a valuable or useful chemical substance that is formed naturally in the ground. (iii) It is reliable and is conveniently used for cooking and for running many appliances. (iv) It is cheaper and cleaner than Petrol or Diesel. (v) Natural Gas is colourless, odourless and lighter than air. (vi) Hydrogen and ammonia is produced from Natural Gas which is used for Fertilizers, Paints and Plastics. (vii) There is an abundant supply and a good reserve of Natural Gas for centuries to come. Disadvantages of Natural Gas : (i) Though found in plenty yet it is non-renewable due to its increasing demand. (ii) Possibility of leakage of gas is of high risk since it is colourless, odourless and tasteless. (iii) It is highly volatile and need to be handled carefully while transporting. (iv) The infrastructure for production and distribution is quite expensive which includes plumbing systems and specialized tanks. (v) In order to use it as fuel all constituents other than methane have to be extracted and this processing results in various by-products: Hydrocarbons, Sulphur, Water vapour, Carbon dioxide, Helium and Nitrogen. Key Terms Conventional sources of energy : These are those sources of energy which are in use since time immemorial and are Non-renewable. Coal : It is an organic Sedimentary Rock and is formed due to the accumulation and preservation of plant materials in a Swamp envIronment, Deltaic regions, Coastal Plains, etc. Bituminous Coal : It is a soft coal containing a tar like substance called Bitumen. Volatile Matter : In coal, it is those substances, other than moisture, that are given off as gas and vapour during combustion. Petroleum : It is derived from the Greek words Petra meaning rock and oleum which means oil. Mineral oil : Since the Petroleum oil is obtained from rocks, especially the sedimentary rocks of the earth, it is called Mineral oil. Hydrocarbons : It is a compound of Hydrogen and carbon such as any of those which are the chief components of Petroleum and Natural gas. Greenhouse Gas : A gas that contributes to the Greenhouse effect by absorbing Infrared Radiation, e.g., Carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons. Global Warming : It is the increase of Earth s average surface temperature due to effect of Greenhouse Gases. Natural Gas : It is a mixture of gases which are rich in Hydrocarbons, e.g., Methane, Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide. Topic-3 Hydel Power Concepts Covered Hydro power Multipurpose Projects Auxiliary Dam Pisciculture Revision Notes Hydel power is a short name used for Hydroelectric power. Hydropower is the most widely used conventional renewable sources of energy to generate electricity. It is the gravitational force of falling water. Hydroelectricity is produced from the energy that is released in the fast flowing water or when water falls from a height with a great force. Energy can be produced from tides by creating a Reservoir or basin behind a barrage and then passing tidal water through turbines in the barrage to generate electricity. 46 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X It is one of the best, cleanest and cheapest sources of energy. It plays an important role in reducing Greenhouse Gas emissions. There is very less possibility of causing pollution. Most of the hydro-electric power plants have a dam and a reservoir and its power generation depends on the head of water and the volume of water flowing towards the Water turbine. Advantages of Hydel Power (i) There is less pollution due to absence of burning fuel. (ii) It is one of the best, cleanest and cheapest sources of energy. (iii) Less maintenance costs. (iv) It plays a big role in reducing Greenhouse Gas emissions. (v) It is reliable, renewable and sustainable. (vi) The reservoirs and dams built to produce hydroelectricity helps in saving and restoring water. Disadvantages of Hydel Power (i) It is expensive due to its high investment costs to build Dams. (ii) Construction of Dams can cause water access problems as it can change the Water-table level. (iii) The building of large Dams can cause serious geological damage like it can cause earthquakes. (iv) Displacement of people living in the villages and towns in the regions, loss of farms and business, and natives are physically and psychologically disturbed. Bhakra Nangal Dam (i) It is the largest and most significant multipurpose Project built in India on River Sutlej. (ii) It is a joint venture of the Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan Governments. (iii) Its main aim is to harness the water of river Sutlej for the benefit of the states involved in the Joint Venture. (iv) The Bhakra Nangal project comprises of : 1. Two dams at Bhakra and Nangal 2. Nangal Hydel Channel 3. Power Houses 4. Bhakra Canal System 5. Electric Transmission lines 1. The Bhakra Dam : It is one of the highest dams in the World. Gobind Sagar lake is the name of the Reservoir of Bhakra Dam. It is the Third Largest Water Reservoir in India. 2. The Nangal Dam : It has been constructed on river Sutlej about 13 kms downstream of the Bhakra Dam. It is an auxiliary dam which serves as a Balancing Reservoir. It is one of the Longest Cemented Canals of the World. Its main function is to turn the turbines of power houses located below the Nangal Dam. 3. The Power House : It has been built to generate Hydroelectricity from the water of River Sutlej. There are four power houses at Ganguwal, Kotla, Right Bank power house and Left Bank Power House. All these power houses have an installed capacity of 1204 MW. 4. Bhakra Canal System : The main Bhakra Canal is 174 km long. It provides irrigation to 27.41 lakh hectares in the states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan. Hirakud Dam : (i) Hirakud Dam is built across the Mahanadi River in Odisha state. (ii) It is one of the first multipurpose river valley projects in India. (iii) The dam was completed in 1953 but was formally inaugurated in 1957. (iv) The dam is the longest major earthen dam in Asia. (v) This project also provides irrigation for Kharif and Rabi crop in the districts of Sambalpur, Bargarh, Bolangir and Subarnapur. (vi) Due to successful Irrigation provided by the dam, Sambalpur is called the Rice Bowl of Odisha. (vii) The dam can generate up to 307.5 MW of Electrical power through its two power plants at Burla and Chiplima. (viii) The objectives of this Dam are: Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 47 1. It helps to control floods in the Mahanadi Delta. 2. It irrigates about 75,000 square kilometers of land. 3. It generates Electricity through many Hydroelectric Plants. The main objective of these Multipurpose Projects : (i) Provision of Irrigation especially to areas of less rainfall areas. (ii) Generation of hydro-electricity to enhance industrial development besides other basic facilities. (iii) To control flooding in the Sutlej and Beas Rivers. (iv) To promote and develop River Navigation. (v) To provide pisciculture or Fish Culture. (vi) Soil Conservation through Afforestation and increase the Productivity of Timber. (vii) Control of Diseases by preventing water logging. (viii) To develop Recreation centres and health resorts. Key Terms Hydropower : It is a power derived from the energy of falling water or fast running water. Hydroelectric Power Plant : It is a hydropower system that uses a dam to store river water in a Reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a generator to produce electricity. Multipurpose Project : It is a large scale river valley project designed to serve many purposes simultaneously like Irrigation, Flood control, Pisciculture, Hydro-electricity. Auxiliary Dam : It is constructed to confine the Reservoir created by a Primary Dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. Pisciculture : It is the controlled Breeding and Rearing of fish. Afforestation : The planting of new saplings in an area where there were no trees before; it s a method to create a new forest. Topic-4 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy Concepts Covered Solar Energy Wind Energy Tidal Energy Geothermal Energy Nuclear Energy Biogas Revision Notes Non-conventional sources of energy are that energy which are developed in the recent past as an alternative to the Conventional or Non-renewable sources of energy. Non-conventional sources of energy include: (i) Solar energy (ii) Wind energy (iii) Tidal energy (iv) Geothermal energy (v) Nuclear energy (vi) Bio-gas They are renewable and inexhaustible and cause less environmental pollution. It is inexpensive and easy to maintain. Non-conventional resources are also known as Green Energy, the energy resources of the future. The non-conventional sources of energy are gaining importance because of the increasing demand for energy and the fast depleting conventional sources like Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas, etc. (i) Solar Energy is the primary source of energy which is inexhaustible. India s location is advantageous for the generation of Solar power. India lies between 8 N and 37 N with the Tropic of Cancer running through it and so receives a lot of sunlight with around 300 clear days in a year. This is advantageous for the generation of Solar Power. To harness solar energy in India many techniques have been developed which are as follows: (a) Solar Cells or Photovoltaic Cells : 48 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 1. Solar energy can be converted into electrical energy by using solar cells or Photovoltaic cells. 2. The Solar cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. 3. These cells are made using a silicon wafer. 4. The light shining on the solar cell produces both a current and a voltage to generate Electric power. 5. Solar cells are regarded as one of the key technologies towards a sustainable energy supply. 6. Solar cells are used in Calculators, Wrist watches, Traffic signals, Street lighting, Water pumps, etc. (b) Solar Cooker : 1. Solar cooking is done by the use of sun s UV rays. 2. The UV rays enter the solar cooker and get converted into infrared light rays. 3. The food in the Solar Cooker is not cooked by the sun s heat. It is the sun s rays that are converted to heat energy that cook the food. 4. The heat energy is retained by the utensil with a lid. 5. A new design of Solar Cooker has been invented which uses a spherical reflector instead of a plane mirror, as the reflector has more heating effect and efficiency. (c) Solar Water Heater : 1. Solar energy is best used for the heating of water. 2. A sun facing collector heats a working fluid that passes into a storage system for later use. 3. The plate is a simple glass-topped insulated box with a flat solar absorber made of sheet metal, attached to copper heat exchanger pipes. Advantages of Solar Energy : (i) It is a renewable and an inexhaustible source of energy. (ii) It is envIronment friendly. (iii) It can be used for varied purposes like generating electricity, heating, drying, etc. (iv) After the initial cost of installation its maintenance and repairing is less and inexpensive. (v) Solar energy saves fossil fuels like Coal and Petroleum to generate electricity and also helps in reducing electricity bills. (vi) A Solar energy system can be installed anywhere and Solar Panels can be easily placed in Houses. (ii) Wind Energy Wind energy or wind power is the process by which the wind is used to generate electricity. Through the windmills wind energy is produced. The wind turns the blades of the Windmill, which spins the shaft and the Turbine moves; Turbines are connected to a generator and produces electricity. A Wind Farm is a group of Wind turbines or Windmills in the same location used for the production of electricity. The Windmills are installed in open areas, in coastal regions or in hilly areas. There are both on-shore and off-shore wind farms. Onshore wind farm is an inexpensive source of electric power while off-shore wind farms are steadier and stronger but its construction and maintenance costs are higher. They generate a large amount of electricity. The largest wind farm network in India is located from Nagercoil to Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Muppandal Wind Farm, situated in the Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu, is the Second Largest on-shore Wind Farm in the World. Advantages of Wind Energy : (i) Wind energy is Plentiful and is Renewable. (ii) It is widely distributed. (iii) It is the cleanest of all and does not produce any greenhouse gas emissions during operation. (iv) It uses small areas of land and consumes no water. (v) It is an alternative to burning fossil fuels. (vi) The electricity produced by wind energy is used for domestic purposes and is economical. (iii) Tidal Energy is a form of hydropower that generates electricity through high Tidal movements. Tidal energy can be harnessed from the tides in two ways: (a) By using the change in height of the tides (Potential energy). (b) By using the flow of water (Kinetic energy). The four main categories of Tidal Power Technology are: (i) In-Stream Device or Tidal Stream Generator (ii) Tidal Barrage Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 49 (iii) Dynamic Tidal Power (iv) Tidal Lagoon. Tidal Stream Generator: It makes use of the Kinetic energy of moving water to power turbines. (ii) Tidal barrages: They make use of the potential energy in the difference in height between high and low tides. Tidal barrages are the oldest methods of tidal power generation. A barrage is built across a bay or a river that is subject to tidal flow. During high tides, the sea water flows into the reservoir of the barrage and turns the turbine which in turn produces electricity by rotating the generators. When the tides are low, the sea water stored in the barrage reservoir flows out in the sea and the flow of water turns the turbines in its process. (iii) Dynamic tidal power: It is a promising technology and proposes to build very long dams from coasts straight out into the sea or ocean, without enclosing an area. (iv) Tidal lagoons : They are independent enclosing barrages built on high level tidal estuary land that trap the high water and release it to generate power. Advantages of Tidal Energy : (i) Tidal energy is an inexhaustible source of energy. (ii) It is non-polluting and does not lead to any carbon emissions like Fossil fuels. (iii) It is predictable since tides rise with great uniformity and energy can also be produced if the speed of water is slow. (iv) Once a Tidal energy power plant is installed, its maintenance costs are extremely low. (v) The energy density of tidal energy is much higher than that of other forms of renewable energy like wind power. (iv) Geothermal Energy : Geothermal is derived from a Greek word Geo which means Earth and Thermos meaning heat. It is the thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Due to very high temperature below the earth s crust, hot water and steam rise up. This heat contains enormous energy and power and is tapped for creating Geothermal energy. To obtain geothermal energy, a geothermal power plant has to be set up. A well has to be dug in a place where there is a good source of superheated water. Pipes have to be fitted that would go down into the source and then the fluids would be forced up to the surface in order to produce the required steam. This steam would be used to rotate a turbine engine, thus generating electricity or geothermal power. Advantages of Geothermal Energy : (i) Geothermal Energy is considered to be a sustainable and renewable source of energy. (ii) It is inexpensive, reliable and easily accessible. (iii) It is envIronment friendly and emits less Greenhouse gases. (iv) Geothermal energy power plant requires low maintenance costs and the electricity bills are reduced. In India, Geothermal plants have the potential to harness about 12,000 MW. Geothermal Plants are located in Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley in Ladakh. (v) Nuclear Power : It is the energy that is created by nuclear reactions. Inside the Nuclear Reactor, energy is generated by means of a chain reaction involving Uranium Atoms. When the uranium atom is split into pieces, it releases heat and energy which is converted into electricity. Advantages of Nuclear Power : (i) Since single uranium can generate a lot of energy when it splits, so electricity is produced in abundance. (ii) It is clean and does not produce substantial Greenhouse Gases. (iii) It is reliable unlike Solar energy which is dependent on weather. (iv) It is a viable alternative as fossil fuels are nonrenewable. (v) Though there is an initial cost factor during installation but once it starts functioning it provides a cheap source of energy. (vi) The waste produced by nuclear power plants can be re-used and the waste can be turned to make useful materials like aircraft production. (vi) Bio-gas : It is a mixture of different gases like Methane, Carbon dioxide and Hydrogen sulphide. It is produced by processing Residual waste of livestock, Sewage and Organic waste. Bio-gas is produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen which is referred to as anaerobic digestion. A bio-gas plant can convert animal manure, vegetative matter, waste from agro industry and slaughter houses into combustible gas. The plants which use Cattle dung are called Gobar Gas Plants. The bio-gas can be used for power generation, cooking, lighting, etc. Advantages of Bio-gas : 50 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Bio-gas is a cheap and clean source of energy. It is non-polluting and does not produce Greenhouse gases. It is Renewable source of energy. There is no storage problem since there is direct supply of gas from the plant. The sludge left behind is a good fertilizer for pastures and meadows and is better from an ecological point of view. (vi) It leads to employment generation in rural areas. (vii) It produces enriched organic manure which can supplement or even replace Chemical Fertilizers. Key Terms Non-conventional sources of energy : This is the energy which is developed in the recent past as an alternative to the conventional or non-renewable sources of energy. Photovoltaic Cells : It is a method for generating electric power by using Solar cells to convert energy from the sun. Wind Energy : It is the process by which the wind is used to generate electricity. Wind Farm : It is a group of wind turbines or windmills in the same location used for the production of electricity. Potential Energy : It is the stored energy or energy caused by its position. An example: Water that is behind a dam. Tidal Energy : It is a form of Hydropower that generates electricity through high Tidal movements. Kinetic Energy : It is the energy possessed by an object in motion. Examples are Hydropower Plants, Windmills etc. Geothermal : It is derived from a Greek words Geo which means Earth and Thermos meaning heat. It is the energy produced from the heat of the Earth. Gobar Gas Plants : The plants which use Cattle dung are called Gobar Gas Plants. CHAPTER-8 AGRICULTURE Topic-1 Indian Agriculture-Importance, Problems and Reforms Concepts Covered Salinization Pruning Absentee Landlord Kisan Call Centers National Agriculture Policy Revision Notes Agriculture is the most important occupation in India. It is the primary activity of the country. The word Agriculture is derived from two Latin words- ager meaning land and culture meaning cultivation. Agriculture means the cultivation of the soil in order to grow crops and rear livestock. Agriculture is the process of producing food, fodder fibre, fuel and other goods by the systematic raising of plants and animals. India has a vast expanse of agricultural land due to rich fertile soil and a good network of Perennial Rivers. In support, India has suitable climatic conditions, good amount of sunshine throughout the year, long growing seasons, etc. Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. It occupies a significant position in the overall economy of the country as it contributes about 17% of total GDP. It plays an important role in the Indian economy due to the following reasons : (i) Agriculture is essential because it feeds millions of people and its ever increasing population. (ii) It also helps in raising livestock with suitable environmental conditions and provides fodder to them. Over 60% of India s land is arable and about 70% of the rural families are engaged in this occupation for their livelihood. (iii) Agriculture helps in creating job opportunities to millions of people. Agriculture is the single largest private sector occupation and provides employment to about 58.4% of country s workforce. (iv) It supports many important industries with the supply of raw materials like Cotton and Jute Textile Industries, Sugar Industries, Vanaspati, Food processing, etc. (v) Various small scale and cottage industries like Handlooms, Spinning Oil Milling, Rice thrashing, etc., are dependent on Agriculture for their raw material. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 51 (vi) Agriculture also provides a good market for the farm inputs like Implements, Fertilizers, Pesticides, Machinery, etc. (vii) India s foreign trade and exports are deeply associated with agriculture. It accounts for more than 18% of the total Export earnings. India is witnessing a slow agricultural growth despite its efforts to achieve high agricultural yield. It is due to Unreliable rainfall, Poor Irrigation System, Farmer s Inaccessibility to the Market, Lack of Proper Market Infrastructure, Poor Farming Techniques, etc. Many factors attributes to its low development as compared to other developed countries. These factors are categorized into four groups as: (i) Environmental Factors (ii) Economic Factors (iii) Institutional Factors (iv) Technological Factors. (i) Environmental Factors : (a) Erratic and unreliable rainfall. (b) Lack of adequate irrigation facilities and dependence on monsoon. (c) Soil degradation from erosion and salinization destroys productivity. (d) The repetition of growing same crops like rice and wheat lead to soil infertility. (e) Inadequate use of manures and fertilizers, negligence of crop rotation, use of poor quality seeds, inadequate water supply, etc., leads to low productivity. (f) Use of simple and old agricultural tools, use of no or less machines for ploughing, sowing, irrigating, pruning, harvesting and threshing results in low yield. (g) In recent years, the net sown area has reduced due to the shifting of cultivating food crops to cultivation of fruits, vegetables, oil seeds, etc. (ii) Economic Factors : (a) The Indian farmers chiefly practice subsistence farming where large manual labour is employed to work on farms but grow only to suffice their family s needs and not much is left for sale in the Market. (b) Farmers are using primitive methods and obtain poor yields as they lack in scientific and technological knowledge. (c) The location of the Market is an important factor. Markets located at a far off distance costs high Transportation. (d) Lack of Transportation facilities. (e) Availability of cheap and efficient labour for the cultivation of crops is important, e.g., Intensive agriculture requires large supply of cheap labour. (f) Agriculture is becoming mechanised and requires huge capital investments to purchase Machineries, Fertilizers, Pesticides and High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds. The Indian farmers are poor to buy all these materials. (g) Globalization has posed a great threat to the Indian farmers. The International Market is a big challenge to the farmers because new agricultural products are being imported easily to India. (h) The price of the farm products in the International Market is declining while in India the price is increasing. (i) Reduction in import duties on agricultural products proved detrimental to Indian Agriculture. (iii) Institutional Factors : (a) The average size of land holdings is very small and is subject to fragmentation due to land ceiling acts and family disputes. (b) The land holdings are uneconomic due to their small size and as such the yields are low. (c) The small land holdings do not generate good income which results in selling of a small portion of land by the small Farmers to repay their debt. (d) The land tenure system in India is a problem for the Farmers which is making their life miserable. (e) Though the tenancy problem has been solved to certain extent but the Indian farmers are suffering from Insecurity of Tenancy. (f) The Absentee Landowners make their land cultivated through Tenants and Share-croppers which results in less production due to their little interest. (iv) Technological Factors : (a) A majority of Indian farmers are still dependent on the primitive and poor techniques of producing crops. (b) They use inadequate and obsolete implements and fail to apply modern science and technology to agriculture in India due to their poverty. Reforms : (i) Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. Due to too many factors affecting agriculture of India, the GDP in the past was declining and was a serious concern. (ii) The Government of India took various measures to overcome the declining Gross Domestic Product (GDP). (iii) It established the Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR), Agricultural Universities, Veterinary Services, Horticulture Development, Research and Development in the Field of Meteorology and Weather Forecast and Kisan Call Centres. 52 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X (iv) The Green Revolution and the National Agricultural Policy (NAP) introduced by the Indian Government is the turning point in the development of Indian Agricultural Sector. (a) The Green Revolution : (i) The Green Revolution is one of the major break-through in the Agricultural sector in India. (ii) It is considered as the greatest revolution that brought a transformation from food scarcity to food self-sufficiency. (iii) The Green Revolution was a technology package comprising material components of improved high yielding varieties of two staple cereals, Rice and Wheat, Irrigation, Fertilizers and Pesticides and associated Management skills. (iv) The Green Revolution had a great impact on Indian Agriculture. They are as follows : 1. It enhanced agricultural production and transformed Indian agriculture from subsistence farming to Commercial Farming or Market Oriented Farming. 2. There was a spectacular increase in the production of Wheat. Besides Wheat, Rice, Sugarcane and Oilseeds also showed significant changes in their productions. 3. A remarkable improvement was also seen with an increase in yield per hectare. 4. The strategy also benefitted the associated industries like transportation, marketing, food processing, etc. which have helped to generate additional job opportunities both in agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. 5. It has paved its way to latest and modern technology to raise the productivity per unit of land. 6. The green revolution and new strategy also made a significant change in cropping pattern. 7. It improved the economy of the farmers and increased rural prosperity. 8. The import of food grains has considerably declined. 9. With the adoption of HYV seeds, Chemical fertilizers, Irrigation methods, the production has enhanced to a quiet high level. (v) During 1960 s, India adopted the New Agricultural Strategy. It was to replace the Traditional Agricultural Practices by Modern Technological Agricultural Methods and practices. (vi) The main elements of the New Agricultural Strategy are : 1. Use of large capital and technological inputs. 2. Adoption of modern scientific methods of farming. 3. Use of HYV (High Yielding Varieties) seeds. 4. Extension of irrigation facilities, particularly ground water resources. 5. Proper use of chemical fertilizers. 6. Improvement in marketing and storage facilities. 7. Use of insecticides and pesticides. 8. Consolidation of landholdings. 9. Supply of agricultural credit. 10. Rural electrification. Besides the Green Revolution, many steps were taken to improve the Agricultural production in India. They are as follows: (i) Passing of legislations to prevent sub-division and fragmentation of lands beyond a certain limit. (ii) Introduction of various land reforms. (iii) Rational utilization of country s water resources for optimum use of irrigation potential. (iv) The Government declares prices for the protection of farmers, minimises fluctuations in commodity prices and monitors international prices. (v) Setting up of Kisan Call Centres also known as Farm Tele-Advisor (FTAs). (vi) The Government of India provides subsidy on fertilizers. (vii) In order to reduce the burden on chemical fertilizers and to increase the yield of organic food, the Government of India launched a National Project on Organic Farming. (viii) To avoid the excessive use of chemical fertilizers, soil testing laboratories have been set up to check the health and the fertility of soil. (b) National Agricultural Policy (NAP): The National Policy on Agriculture seeks to : (i) Tap the growth potential of Indian Agriculture (ii) Strengthen Rural Infrastructure (iii) Generate the growth of Agro-business (iv) Create employment in Rural areas (v) Face the challenges arising out of Economic Liberalisation and Globalization. The salient features of the National Agricultural Policy are as follows: (i) Over 4% annual growth rate aimed over next two decades. (ii) Greater private sector participation through contract farming. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 53 (iii) To minimise fluctuation of prices to protect the Farmers from risks. (iv) National Agricultural Insurance scheme to be launched. (v) Remove restrictions on the movement of agricultural commodities throughout the country. (vi) Exemption from payment of capital gains tax on compulsory acquisition of Agricultural land. (vii) Progressive institutionalisation of rural and farm credit. (viii) High priority to rural electrification. (ix) Plant varieties to be protected through Legislations. (x) Monitoring of International Prices. (xi) Adequate and timely supply of quality inputs to Farmers. (xii) Setting up of agro-processing units and creation of off-farm employment in Rural areas. (xiii) High priority to be given for the Development of Animal Husbandry, Poultry, Dairy and Aquaculture. Key Terms Agriculture: Agriculture is an occupation of a man to manage his environment in order to produce food. It is defined as the cultivation of the soil in order to grow crops and rear livestock. GDP : It is Gross Domestic Product which means the monetary value of all the finished goods and services produced by all the sectors of the economy within a country s borders in a specific time period. Salinization : The process by which the salt concentration increases in the soil that affects crop production, pastures and trees. Crop Rotation : It is the practice of growing different types of crops in succession on the same land to preserve the fertility of the soil. Pruning : The process of cutting off unwanted branches. Land Ceiling : It means fixing maximum size of land holding that an individual can own. Absentee Landowners : A person who rents or leases real estate for profit earning to another individual or group of individuals but does not reside within the property s premises. Green Revolution : It is considered as the greatest revolution that brought a transform from food scarcity to food self-sufficiency. Globalisation : It is a process of interaction and integration among different groups of people worldwide. In this process, the whole world is one market where things are produced Locally and sold Globally. Kisan Call Centres : It is a scheme of the Department of Agriculture launched across the country to deliver extension services to the Farming Community. Organic Farming : It is a farming method that involves growing and nurturing crops without the use of Synthetic Fertilizers and Pesticides. Animal Husbandry : It is the Branch of Agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, eggs or other products. Topic-2 Types of Farming in India Concepts Covered Subsistence Farming Shifting Agriculture Plantation Farming Commercial Farming Intensive Farming Extensive Farming Mixed Farming Revision Notes The Farming system is based on the nature of land, climatic conditions, technological knowledge and irrigation facilities. In India different types of Farming are practiced in different parts of the country. The different types of farming practiced in India are as follows (i) Subsistence Farming (ii) Shifting Agriculture (iii) Plantation Farming (iv) Commercial Farming (v) Intensive Farming (vi) Extensive Farming (vii) Mixed Farming. 54 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X (i) Subsistence Farming : (a) Subsistence Farming is a self-sufficient farming in which the Farmer grows enough food to feed himself and his family. (b) The Farmers have small land and do not use fertilizers and thus the yield is low. (c) The output is mostly for local requirements with little or no surplus trade. (d) The land holdings are small and scattered. (e) The Farmer uses simple and primitive tools with traditional method of agriculture. (f) Thus, Farming tends to be very intensive and double or triple-cropping is practiced. Such type of farming is called the intensive Subsistence Farming. (g) A good amount of hand labour is required. (h) This type of farming is highly dependent on monsoon since there is no Irrigation facilities and also depends on the Natural fertility of the soil. (ii) Shifting Agriculture : (a) Shifting agriculture is known as Slash and Burn Method . (b) It is a primitive method of farming in which a patch of forest is cleared by felling trees or by burning the trees. (c) The patch of land is cultivated with primitive tools like sticks and hoes with no use of machines. (d) The cultivation on this land is done temporarily i.e., for 2 years - 3 years or until the soil fertility is lost. (e) Then the farmer shifts to another piece of land and repeats the same method. (f) This type of agriculture is a great menace to environment. (g) It encourages soil erosion and causes floods. (h) The crops grown in this type of farming are- Maize, Millets, Barley, Buckwheat, Root crops, Rain fed Rice and Vegetables. (i) The yield per hectare is quite low since no Fertilizers are used. (j) It is called by different names in different regions in India. It is called Jhum in Assam, Poonam in Kerala, Koman or Bringa in Odisha, Khil in the Himalayan region, Podu in Andhra Pradesh, Kuruwa in Jharkhand and Bewar, Masha, Penda and Hera in different parts of Madhya Pradesh. (k) Shifting agriculture is discouraged by the government because frequent shifting from one land to another land has affected the ecology of the regions. (iii) Plantation Farming : (a) It is a commercial type of farming in which a single cash crop is cultivated on a large scale in the farm. The farm land is called an Estate. It is a Monoculture Agriculture System. (b) Crops like Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Spices, etc., are grown under Plantation Farming mainly for Trade and Profit. (c) This type of farming is practiced in vast lands extending from a few hectares to thousands of hectares. (d) Only one type of crop is cultivated in the entire year like Rubber, Bananas, Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, etc. (e) Modern methods, techniques and machineries are used for growing crops. (f) Huge capital is invested in buying Machineries, Fertilizers, Pesticides and Building factories for processing of crops. (g) Due to the large size of the plantation, large numbers of labourers are required to tend to the crops and work in the nearby processing factories. (h) The plantation crops earn a good amount of Foreign Exchange as they are Exported in huge quantities. (iv) Commercial Farming : (a) Commercial Farming is a farming where crops are grown for sale in the market for commercial purposes. (b) The crops like Sugarcane, Oilseeds, Jute and Cotton that are sold in the market are also called Cash Crops. (c) It largely depends on machines, uses HYV seeds, Chemical Fertilizers, Pesticides and Insecticides to obtain higher yield. (iv) This type of farming is practiced in large farms spreading over hundreds of hectares of land. (v) The degree of commercialisation of agriculture varies in different parts of the country, e.g., Rice is grown as a commercial crop in Punjab and Haryana but it is a Subsistence crop in Odisha. (vi) Since most of the states have small landholdings as such commercial farming is not popular throughout the country. (v) Intensive Farming : (a) Intensive Farming is a system of farming that involves Higher input of labour, Increased use of Fertilizers, Pesticides, High quality seeds, etc. and higher level of output also in relation to the size of the land area. (b) It is practised in the regions where the density of population is high. (c) It requires good amount of Irrigation as it is characterised by a high incidence of Multiple Cropping. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 55 (d) More use of labour and capital. (e) In this type of farming, the yield per hectare is high. (f) Rice and Wheat are the main crops that are grown in Intensive Farming. (g) Close to Markets. (vi) Extensive Farming : (a) Extensive Farming unlike Intensive Farming requires less labour to farm large areas of land. (b) It uses Machinery and Scientific methods to produce large quantity of crops. (c) Mechanization is effectively used over large and flat areas. (d) Large and inexpensive farming technique practiced in a moderately populated area. (e) Per hectare production may be less but the total output is very high in this type of farming. (f) Crop specialisation is one of the major characteristics of this type of farming. (g) The main crops grown are Rice, Wheat, Sugarcane, etc. (h) One of the advantages of extensive farming is that local environment and soil are not damaged by overuse of chemicals. (i) This type of farming is not common. It is practised in parts of Terai region of Sub-Himalayas and in parts of North-Western India. (j) Remote location far off from Market. (vii) Mixed Farming : (a) Mixed Farming is a type of farming in which a Farmer conducts different agricultural practices on a Single farm to increase income through different sources and rears cattle simultaneously. (b) In this type of Farming Food and Fodder crops are given equal importance. (c) Here, along with Farming the other occupations which carried out are- Poultry Farming, Dairy Farming, Bee keeping, Sericulture, Piggery, Goat and Sheep Rearing, Agro-Forestry, etc. (d) The main benefit of this type of farming is that it ensures a steady income for the Farmers because if any one business or farming fails, the other means can support. (e) It maintains Soil fertility, Soil biodiversity, Minimize soil erosion and help to Conserve water. (f) Farmers can grow Sorghum, Pusa giant napier, Berseem, etc., as Fodder crops for their cattle along with food crops. Key Terms Subsistence Farming : It is a self-sufficient Farming in which the Farmers grow enough food to feed themselves and their family. Double Cropping : To raise two consecutive crops on the same land within a Single growing season. Shifting Agriculture : It is a Primitive Method of Agriculture in which a patch of Forest is cleared by felling trees or by fire. Plantation farming : Type of Commercial Farming in which Single Cash Crop is cultivated on a large scale in an Estate. Estate : The Farm land used for the Plantation Farming is called an Estate. Commercial Farming : It is a farming where crops are grown for sale in the Market for Commercial purposes. Intensive Farming : It is a system of farming that involves Higher input of labour, Increased use of Fertilizers, Pesticides, High Quality Seeds, etc. and higher level of output as well in relation to the size of the Farm or Land. Extensive Farming : It is a farming that requires less labour to farm large areas of land and uses large and inexpensive farming techniques to have small scale output in moderately populated area. Mixed Farming : It is a combination of growing crops and rearing of Live stock like cattle simultaneously. Topic-3 Agricultural Seasons and Food Crops Concepts Covered Different Types of Crops on the Basis of Season of Sowing Methods of Cultivation of Rice and Other Food Crops Revision Notes Crop: A crop is a plant that is cultivated or grown. It can be grown on a large scale for commercial purpose or on a small scale for self-consumption. In India, different crops are grown in different seasons. 56 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X There are three major agricultural seasons in India (i) Kharif Season (ii) Rabi Season (iii) Zaid Season (i) Kharif Season: In Kharif season, the crops are grown in the months of June and July and harvested in September and October. Rice, Jowar, Sugarcane, Bajra, Ragi, Maize, Cotton and Jute are some of the important Kharif crops. (ii) Rabi Season: In Rabi season, the crops are sown in October and November and harvested in March and April. Crops like Wheat, Barley, Rapeseed, Linseed, Gram, Peas, Mustard, Potatoes, etc., are grown as Rabi crops. (iii) Zaid Season: There are some crops which are grown just after the Rabi season in the Summer months. They are known as Zaid crops. Zaid crops are sown in February and March and harvested in May, e.g., Maize, Watermelons, Cucumbers, etc. In India agriculture occupies about 60% of the total cropped area. With the advent of Green Revolution Technology, India focused on the goal of food grain self-sufficiency. The Green Revolution benefited increase in crop production, especially Wheat and Rice. With all the conditions being favourable for agriculture available in India, Indian Farmers grow almost each and every crop. The Green Revolution benefitted increase in crop production, especially Wheat and Rice. The important crops grown in India are Rice, Wheat, Pulses, Millets, Barley, Jowar, Gram, Oats, Maize, Rye, etc. They fall in the category of Food crops called Cereals. The cereals occupy about 54 % of total cropped area in India. Rice : Rice and Wheat are staple Food of India and pulses are rich in proteins, forming a very important part of the Indian diet. (i) It is the most important staple food crop of India. (ii) India is one of the world s largest producers of White and Brown Rice. (iii) Rice is an Indigenous crop and is grown in all parts of the country especially in the North eastern part of India and in the coastal parts of Southern India. (iv) Rice is grown in the rain-fed areas where the annual rainfall is heavy and is thus a Kharif crop. (v) The climatic conditions of rice are as follows : 1. Temperature : above 25 C 2. Rainfall : above 100 cm 3. Soil : Deep fertile clayey or loamy soils The soil should be able to stagnate water in the field. In India the Rice crops are grouped into two categories : (i) The Upland Rice : It is grown on mountainous regions, sown in March-April and harvested in September October, the crop is locally used and depends entirely on rainfall. (ii) The Lowland Rice : It is grown in low lying areas, sown in June and harvested in October, requires plenty of water and is locally used and supplied to other regions too. Methods of Cultivation : Rice is cultivated by two methods in India. They are : (i) The Dry Method of Rice Cultivation (ii) The Wet Method of Rice Cultivation or Puddle (i) The Dry Method of Rice Cultivation: Rice grown by dry methods are confined to rain-fed areas and do not have any Irrigation facilities. Here, seeds are scattered with hands in areas of moderate rainfall and are sown in rows with the help of drills in the areas of heavy rainfall. Wet method of cultivation is practiced in areas which have a good supply of water. The field is ploughed and filled with 3 cm to 5 cm of standing/stagnated water. Farmers make their fields ready before the rainy season. The weeds get cleared and the field is ploughed to a depth of few inches. Then, manures and fertilizers are added to the soil. At last, the whole surface of the Farm is covered with water of about 2.5 cm. The field is now ready to receive seedlings from the nursery. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 57 The steps followed to cultivate rice are : (i) Sowing (ii) Processing (i) Sowing: In India Rice is sown in the following ways : (a) Broadcasting Method (b) Drilling Method (c) Dibbling Method (d) Transplanting Method (e) Japanese Method. (a) Broadcasting Method : After ploughing, the seeds are scattered all over the field before the onset of monsoon. (b) Drilling Method : In this method the seeds are sown in the furrows with the help of a drill made of Bamboo. (c) Dibbling Method : It refers to sowing of seeds at regular intervals in the ploughed furrows. (d) Transplanting Method : Seedlings, the tiny plants are first grown in nurseries and after 4 to 5 weeks when the saplings attain a height of 25 cm to 30 cm they are transplanted to prepared Rice fields. It is a popular method because it gives a higher yield. Advantages of Transplanting Method : (1) It enables to select only healthy seedlings for the plants. (2) Less wastage of seeds. (3) It minimizes weed pressure by resowing. (4) It gives higher yield. (e) Japanese Method : It was introduced in 1953 and is the most popular method. In this method, High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds called Japonica are used. Important features of Japanese method of Rice Cultivation : (i) Use of High Yielding Variety (HYV) of seeds. (ii) Saplings are sown in the nursery and raised in the Nursery beds for 4-5 weeks. (iii) Manure is extensively used to enhance the yield. (ii) Processing of Rice : The grown crop goes under certain processes before it become consumable. They are: (a) Harvesting : The cutting and gathering of matured crops is called harvesting. A sickle is used to cut the stalk and kept to dry in the fields for 3-4 days. It is labour intensive process. (b) Threshing : It is done by beating the sheaves against the wooden bars for separating the grains from the stalks. (c) Winnowing : It is the process of removing the unwanted husk from the grains. (d) Milling : It is done to remove the yellowish husk from the grains. Traditionally it was done by hitting in a wooden mortar but now it is done by Machines. The leading producers of rice in India are : West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and North-eastern states of India. Wheat : (i) It is a staple food for the people of Northern and North-western parts of the country. (ii) It grows best in cool, moist climate and ripens in a warm and dry climate. (iii) It is mostly confined to the cool Winter regions. (iv) In south, the growing period is shorter than in the North. (v) Wheat is a Rabi crop. (vi) The climatic conditions are : 1. Sown in October-November and harvested in January in south, by March-April in North. 2. Temperature : 10 C to 15 C is suitable for sowing and 20 C to 25 C during harvest. 3. Rainfall : 50 cm to 100 cm. 4. Soil : It grows best in well-drained loamy and clay loam - Black soil. Methods of Wheat cultivation : 1. Sowing : (i) The seeds can be sown by using Drilling or the Broadcasting method. (ii) The seeds germinate in about three or four days. (iii) The temperature should be low during the growing season. 58 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 2. Harvesting : (i) Wheat is harvested in April when the temperature is 27 C. (ii) The crop is harvested by using a sickle. (iii) States like Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar use Machines for Harvesting. (iv) Threshers are used to separate the grain from the husk. India has shown a tremendous increase in the production of wheat in comparison to other crops grown in the country. The leading producers of wheat in the country are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Millets : (i) Millets refers to coarse grains like Jowar, Bajra and Ragi which serve as Food grains. They are generally used by people living in rural areas. (ii) The straw of these grains are a valuable Cattle fodder. (iii) These crops can grow in infertile soil withstand harsh climatic conditions. As Millets do not need much rainfall to grow, they are also known as Dry Crops . (iv) They grow for a short period of time, i.e., for 3 to 4 months. (a) Jowar : (i) It is both, a Kharif and a Rabi crop. (ii) It grows well in dry areas even without Irrigation. (iii) Temperature : Between 27 C and 32 C (iv) Rainfall : Under 45 cms. The crop can grow in Arid and Semi-arid areas. (v) Jowar can grow on different kinds of soil ranging from heavy and light Alluvium to Red, Grey and Yellow loams. (vi) It is widely grown in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan. (b) Bajra : (i) It is a rain-fed Kharif crop and is grown as a pure and mixed crop. (ii) It is grown along with Cotton, Jowar and Ragi. (iii) It is sown in June-July and harvested in September-October. (iv) Temperature : 25 C and 30 C. (v) Rainfall : Less than 50 cm. (vi) Bajra is grown on Red soil or sandy loamy soil. (vii) It is grown mainly in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. (c) Ragi or Buckwheat : (i) It is grown in drier parts of South India almost throughout the year with the help of Irrigation. (ii) Temperature : 20 C to 30 C. (iii) Rainfall : 50 cm to 100 cm. (iv) Ragi is sown between May and June and harvested between September and October. (v) It can grow in drier conditions and can withstand severe drought conditions. (vi) It is grown on Red, Light Black and Sandy loam soil in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and on Alluvial loam soil in Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and Gujarat. (vii) It gives higher yield than jowar and bajra and lower yield than Wheat and Rice. (viii) Karnataka is the leading producer of Ragi in India. The other producers of Ragi in India are Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Pulses : (i) Pulses form an important part of the Indian diet because they are full of Protein. (ii) Pulses are grown as Rotation crops as they are leguminous crops that fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil and increase the natural fertility of the soil. (iii) Pulses are good Cattle fodder too. (iv) The two most important pulses are Gram and Tur. Other important pulses are Urad, Moong, Masur, Kulthi, Matar, Khesari and Moth. (v) Temperature : 20 C to 25 C. (vi) Rainfall : 50 cm to 75 cm. (vii) Pulses grow on dry light soil, light loamy and Alluvial soil, Black and Red soil too, i.e., can grow in any kind of soil. (viii) Tur, Urad and Moong are raised as Kharif crop in most part of India but Khesari and Masur, matar and Gram Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 59 are raised as Rabi crops in North India. (ix) Gram is raised as Rabi crop and is sown mixed with Wheat. (x) India is the largest producer and consumer of Pulses in the World. (xi) The important Pulses producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. Key Terms Crop : A Crop is a plant that is cultivated or grown. It can be grown on a large scale for Commercial purpose or on a small scale for self-consumption. Kharif Season : This cropping season is from July to October during the South West Monsoon. The main crops are Jute and Rice. Rabi Season : This cropping season is from October to March. The main crops are Wheat and Mustard. Zaid : Agricultural crops which are grown in the short duration between Rabi and Kharif crop season, mainly from March to June. Cereals : It denotes all kinds of grass-like plants which are starchy and edible seeds like, Rice, Wheat, Barley, Maize, Oats, Millets, etc. The Upland Rice : It is grown on mountainous regions, sown in March-April and harvested in September and October. The Lowland Rice : It is grown in low lying areas, sown in June and harvested in October, requires plenty of water and is locally used and supplied to other regions too. Broadcasting Method : After ploughing, the seeds are scattered all over the field before the onset of Monsoon. Drilling Method : In this method the seeds are sown in the furrows with the help of a drill made of Bamboo. Dibbling Method : It refers to sowing of seeds at regular intervals in the furrows. Transplanting Method : Seedlings are first grown in nurseries and after 4 to 5 weeks when the saplings attain a height of 25 cm to 30 cm they are transplanted to prepared Rice fields. Japonica : The High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds used in the Japanese method of Rice Cultivation. Threshing : It is done by beating the sheaves against the wooden bars for separating the grains from the stalks. Winnowing : It is the process of removing the unwanted husk from the grains. Milling : It is done to remove the yellowish husk from the grains. Traditionally it was done by hitting in a wooden mortar but now it is done by machines. Dry Crops : As Millets do not need much rainfall to grow, they are also known as Dry Crops . Topic-4 Cash Crops-Sugarcane and Oilseeds Concepts Covered Types of Cash Crops Methods of their Cultivation-Sett, Ratooning, Crystallization, Harrowing Revision Notes Cash crops are those crops which are basically grown for sale and export. E.g. Tea, Sugarcane, etc. The cash crops provide raw material to agro-based industries and support the farmers financially to improve their living conditions and their farming practices. The main cash crops are classified as: (A) Plantation Crops: (a) Sugarcane (B) Oilseed Crops: (a) Groundnut (b) Mustard (c) Soya bean (C) Fibre Crops: (a) Cotton 60 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X (b) Jute (D) Beverage Crops: (a) Tea (b) Coffee (A) Plantation Crops : Plantation crops are high value crops of great economic importance, cultivated on large scale agricultural unit usually of a single crop. For example, Sugarcane. It belongs to grass family and grows to a height of more than 3.5 m. The sugar in the sugarcane plant is stored in the stem. Sugarcane is the main source of sugar, gur and khandsari. The sugar cane yield per hectare is higher in south due to the tropical climate of Peninsular India and long crushing season of about 8 months. Climatic conditions required for sugarcane are : 1. Temperature: Grows best in areas with temperature between 20 C and 24 C. 2. Frosts are dangerous and injurious for sugarcane crop. 3. During ripening and harvesting period Dry Cool Winter Season is necessary. 4. It requires 100 cm-150 cm of rainfall throughout the year. 5. Areas of low rainfall need Irrigation. 6. The crop grows well in well drained Rich alluvial, Heavy loam or Lava soil. 7. It is also grown on Black soil, Reddish loam and Laterite soil in the Peninsular region. 8. Sugarcane is soil-exhausting crop and thus needs fertilizers, manures and good irrigation facilities. Methods of Cultivation : 1. Sowing: Sugarcane is a labour intensive crop. Sugarcane is planted by the following methods : (i) Sett Method : (i) In this method new canes are planted by taking cuttings from old sugarcane plants. (ii) These cuttings are called Setts from which buds sprout to form new stalks after a few days. (iii) From these cuttings 4 to 5 stalks grow. (iv) A sugarcane plant takes 10 to 15 months to mature. (ii) Ratooning Method : It is a method in which during harvesting of Sugarcane plant, the roots and the lower parts of the plant are left in the field to give the ratoon or the subtle crop. The successive crops that grow from the left out subtle is called the Ratoon. Sugarcane keeps producing for two to three years and with each successive year the production is lesser than the previous year. Advantages of Ratooning : 1. It saves labour as the crop need not be planted again. 2. This method is inexpensive as no preparation of the field is required . 3. The ratoon matures early. Disadvantages of Ratooning : 1. Ratoons produce low quality crop as with successive year the canes are thinner with low sucrose content. 2. There is high risk of pests and diseases. (iii) By Seeds : Sugarcane was grown by sowing seeds but now this method is obsolete. It is planted in furrows and covered with soil. It is grown as a mixed crop in some states of India. 2. Harvesting : Sugarcane is harvested when the crop matures in 10-12 months. It is done before the cane begins to flower. The sugarcane harvesting season begins in October-November and ends in April. Harvesting is done manually by hand knives, cutting blades or hand axes. It requires skilled labourers as the stalks must be cut very close to the ground level because the maximum sucrose content is in the bottom of the stem. 3. Processing : After harvesting, the canes are taken to the Sugar Mills as soon as possible so that they can be processed within 48 hours of cutting to preserve the Sucrose content. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 61 In the mills, the canes are crushed between the rollers to extract a large part of the juice. To remove the soluble and insoluble impurities, the juice is boiled with lime. The non-sugar impurities are removed by continuous filtration. Then the juice is concentrated by removing the water through vacuum evaporation. Crystallization takes place and forms Raw Brown Sugar. The by-products of sugarcane are Bagasse, Molasses and Press-mud. In India, two thirds of the sugar produced is used by the Gur and Khandsari Industries. Problems of Sugarcane Cultivation : (i) Sugarcane is a soil-exhausting crop and thus needs good amount of fertilizers which increases the cost of production. (ii) In India, the yield per hectare is extremely low as compared to other countries of the world. (iii) Sugarcane has a short crushing season normally from 4 to 7 months in a year which results in financial problems for the industry as the mills and the workers remain idle. (iv) The location of sugar mills are far from the fields, thus, a delay of more than 24 hours results in the reduction of sucrose content in the canes. (v) Sugarcane is an annual crop but the land available for Sugarcane is less as compared to other crops, thus, the farmers are unable to cultivate any other crop. (vi) The production cost of sugarcane in India is the highest in the world due to uneconomic process of production, inefficient technology and heavy excise duty. (vii) Small and uneconomic size of mills. (viii) Old and obsolete machinery are used in most of the Indian Sugar Mills and needs rehabilitation. (ix) Sugar industry is facing competition with Gur and Khandsari since Khandsari industry is free from excise duty and can offer higher prices of Cane to the Cane growers. (x) Sugarcane cultivation needs good amount of water but lacks irrigation facilities. (xi) The government has fixed prices for the sugarcane farmers which is not profitable for them. Role of Government in Solving Problems of Sugarcane Farmers : (i) To set up a number of Cooperative Societies. (ii) To develop various means of irrigation to provide regular supply of water to the Sugarcane fields. (iii) To provide adequate and timely loans to farmers on easy terms so that they can buy farm Machinery and other Agricultural items. (iv) To educate Farmers with latest farming techniques and help farmers through Specially Developed Programmes on Radio and Television. (B) Oilseeds : Oilseeds are raw materials for Industries like Vegetable oil, Hydrogenated oil, Paints, Varnish, Soap, Pharmaceuticals, etc. For example: Groundnut, Mustard, Soya bean, etc. India produces a wide variety of Oilseeds. India has the largest area and production of oilseeds in the world and they are a great source of foreign exchange. The principal oilseeds are: (a) Groundnut (b) Mustard (c) Soyabean All these oilseeds are used for different purposes like some are used for Cooking and some as Industrial raw materials in the Manufacture of Paints, Varnishes, Hydrogenated oil, Soaps and Lubricants. Groundnut is the leading oilseed followed by Mustard. After the extraction of oil from the oilseeds the residue left is known as the oil cake. Oilcake is used as Animal fodder and is also used as good Manure in the Farms. India is one of the largest producers of oilseeds in the World. (a) Groundnut : Groundnut is a Kharif crop in most parts of India except Odisha and the Southern states where it is a Rabi crop. It is mainly used for the manufacture of hydrogenated oil and is used in making Margarine, Soap, Medicines, Cooking oil, etc. It is also known as Peanut and Monkey nut. It is eaten raw, roasted and salted. Its oil cake is an excellent cattle feed. There are two types of Groundnut Plants : Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 62 1. The Runner Type 2. The Bunch Type Climatic conditions: 1. Temperature: 20 C to 25 C 2. Rainfall: Between 50 cm-100 cm 3. Black soil, sandy loams and loamy soil are ideal for the crop. 4. The crop is highly susceptible to frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain and stagnated water. Methods of Cultivation(i) Sowing: 1. After ploughing the seeds are sown by scattered or Broadcasting or Drilling method. 2. In most part of India, the seeds are sown in the month of June or July but in South it is sown in the month of February and March. 3. The seeds are placed at 5-6 cm depth in the soil. 4. Adequate water in the top 60 cm of layer of soil is important for high yield and good quality of groundnut seeds. 5. Weeds cause damage to the crop so mechanically and chemically it is controlled. 6. The mature fruits have wrinkled shells with one to four seeds per pod. (ii) Harvesting: 1. The crop should be harvested at the right time for obtaining higher yields of pods and oil. 2. To facilitate easy harvesting, irrigation before harvesting is ideal which make the soil loose. 3. The Groundnut plant along with roots is uprooted from the soil by hand or by machine. 4. After the peanuts dry sufficiently, they are threshed, removing the peanut pods from the rest of the bush. 5. The Groundnuts are then packed and sent for processing either to mills or to the market for trading. (viii) India is the second largest producer of Groundnut in the World. (ix) It is widely grown in Peninsular India, Telangana and Tamil Nadu, being the largest producers in the southern part of the country. (x) In India, Gujarat is the leading producer of Groundnuts followed by Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. (b) Mustard : Mustard is edible oil and one of the most important oilseeds produced in India. Mustard grows well in temperate regions thus it is widely grown in Northern India in states like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. It is a Rabi Crop and is also grown mixed with Wheat, Gram and Barley. In North, it is mainly used for Cooking and the Oil cake is used as Animal fodder. The leaves of the mustard are eaten as vegetable in North and is also used as a Manure. Mustard grows well in cool climatic conditions and is widely grown along the Ganga-Sutlej Plains. Climatic conditions : 1. Temperature: 10 C to 20 C 2. Rainfall: 25 cm to 40 cm. 3. Soil: Alluvial loam is the best soil and even it grows in sandy to heavy clay soils. Methods of Cultivation : 1. The crop is grown in the winter season. 2. It is grown with wheat, gram and barley in rows. 3. It is sown by broadcasting or drilling method. 4. Harvesting is to be carried out as soon as the pods begins to turn yellow and the seed becomes hard. 5. Sickle is used to cut the mustard plants. 6. The plants are tied and kept for 5 to 6 days to dry. 7. Threshing is carried out with a stick and Winnowing is done to separate the grain from the husk. 8. It is extensively found in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Gujarat and Jammu and Kashmir. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 63 (c) Soyabean: Soyabean is grown as a Kharif Crop in India. It is high in protein and is in great demand. It is considered to be a substitute for Animal Protein. It is consumed as Soya milk or Tofu (Cheese). Climatic Conditions : 1. Temperature: 13 C to 24 C 2. Rainfall: 40 cm to 60 cm 3. Soil: Moist alluvial soil and friable loamy acidic soils but grows best on sandy loam having good organic matter. Methods of Cultivation : 1. Soya bean is sown in 40 cm to 50 cm apart through drilling method. 2. Irrigation is not required and is rain-fed. 3. At the time of sowing one deep ploughing and two harrowing should be given to maintain optimum moisture. 4. Harvesting is carried out in mid-October as usual by threshing machine. Soya bean is produced in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra. Madhya Pradesh (M.P.) is the leading producer of soya beans. Key Terms Cash Crops: Cash crops are those crops which are basically grown for sale and export. e.g., Tea, Sugarcane, etc. Soil-exhausting Crop : Soil that loses the nutrients due to the farming of the same crop over and over again. Setts : When new canes are planted by taking cuttings from the high yielding mother plants. These cuttings are called Setts from which buds sprout to form new stalks after a few days. Ratoon : A new shoot that grows from the previous root or crown of crop plants after the harvest. e.g., Sugarcane. Crystallization : A process that separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a solution. Bagasse : The dry fibrous residue remaining after the extraction of juice from the crushed stalks of Sugarcane. They are used in manufacturing Pulp and as Biofuel. It is a By-product of Sugarcane. Molasses : It is a viscous by-product of Refining Sugarcane or Sugar Beets into Sugar. It is used for making Yeast, Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals. Press-mud : It is the organic solid waste and the Sugar Mill Effluent- the liquid waste of Sugar Mill which is converted into nutrient rich and good quality organic manure. It is used as Fertilizer, Shoe polish and wax. Hydrogenated oil : It is oil with trans-fatty acids that has been chemically changed from a room-temperature liquid state into a solid. Oil cake : The residue that is left after the extraction of Oil from the Oilseeds. Weeds : Wild or unwanted plants that grow around the main plant and absorbs the nutrients of the main plant. Harrowing : An agricultural implement with spike like teeth or upright disks drawn chiefly over plowed land to level it, root up weeds, etc. Crops- Cotton, Jute, Tea and Coffee Topic-5 Cash Concepts Covered Methods of Cultivation and Irrigation of Different Crops Revision Notes Fibre crops : Fibre crops are field crops grown for their fibres (strong thread like materials) which are traditionally used in making textiles, rope, twine and similar materials. For example, Cotton, Jute. (a) Cotton : Cotton is one of the most important fibre and major cash crop grown in India. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 64 It plays an important role in the textile industry and agricultural economy of the country. It is a tropical crop and is raised as a Kharif Crop. Cotton in India provides direct livelihood to about 6 million farmers and about 40 million-50 million people are employed in Cotton Trade. Cotton is grown in Black soil which is also called Regur soil, Black Cotton soil and Black clay soil. Climatic Conditions : (i) Temperature: Between 21 C and 27 C. (ii) Rainfall: Moderate rainfall from 50 cm to 80 cm is ideal. (iii) A long growing period of at least 200 frost-free days is necessary for the plant to mature. (iv) Cotton grows on a variety of soils ranging from well drained deep alluvial soils in the North to deep and medium black clay soils in the Deccan and Malwa Plateau and Gujarat. (v) The quality of Cotton depends on length of fibres, fitness, strength and structure of its fibre. Methods of Cultivation : (i) Sowing : 1. The seeds are sown by the broadcasting or drilling methods. 2. The duration of crop season is 6 to 8 months. 3. The sowing is ideal before the onset of monsoon i.e., May till September-October. 4. Drip Irrigation is the most effective way of watering in Cotton Farming. (ii) Harvesting : 1. Cotton can either be picked by hand or by machines. 2. The Cotton balls after ripening burst into white, fluffy and shiny balls of fibre. 3. In Punjab and Haryana cotton is harvested in December-January that is before the winter frost can damage the crop. 4. In the peninsular part of India, it is harvested between January and May because there is no danger of winter frost in these areas. (iii) Processing : The Cotton crop after harvesting goes through the following process: 1. The freshly picked cotton is pressed into large bales. 2. The cotton gin mechanically separates the fibres from the seed and turns it into ginned cotton also called lint. 3. This process of separation of cotton fibre from the cotton seed is called Ginning. 4. The Cotton lint or fibre is pressed into large bales and transported to the textile mills. 5. At the Mill, the bales are cleaned by washing and then combed and made into an untwisted rope called a silver. 6. A spinning frame turns these silvers directly into cotton yarns. 7. Lastly, the yarn is dyed and looms are used to weave it into ready-to-use fabrics. Varieties of Cotton : There are three varieties of Cotton grown in India: 1. Long Staple: 24 mm to 35 mm 2. Medium Staple: 20 mm to 24 mm 3. Short Staple: less than 20 mm Cotton is extensively produced in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Punjab. In India, the chief cotton growing areas are : (i) North-Western Deccan Region (ii) Central and Southern Deccan of Karnataka (iii) North west Region. (b) Jute : Jute is obtained from the inner bark of two important species: (i) The White Jute (ii) The Tossa Jute The White Jute is hardy, highly adaptable and grows well on both lowlands and uplands. The Tossa Jute is grown only on uplands. Jute is used for manufacturing a variety of products like Rugs and Clothes, Gunny bags, Hessian, Ropes, Carpets, Strings, Tarpaulins, Upholstery, etc. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 65 Jute is in great demand Internally and Globally because of it s Eco friendliness, Bio-degradable nature and change of mindset of Consumers towards Jute products over synthetic products. Jute is referred to as Golden Fibre for its colour, silky shine and high cash value as it earns good Revenue. It is also called the Brown Paper Bag in wholesale trades especially as the jute fabric is used to make sack cloth. These Sacks are further used to pack Grains, Cement, Fertilizers, etc. Mesta is inferior substitute for Jute, can withstand drought conditions and can be grown anywhere under wider climatic and soil conditions. Rough bags are made out of Mesta. Jute is 100% biodegradable, recyclable and environmental friendly. Climatic Conditions : 1. Temperature: Between 24 C and 35 C. 2. Rainfall: About 150-200 cm is ideal. 3. Warm and wet climate with relative humidity of 90% are favourable. 4. Jute requires 2-3 inches of rainfall weekly during the sowing period. 5. New Alluvium fertile soil in the Ganga delta region is most suitable for Jute Cultivation. Methods of Cultivation : (i) Sowing : 1. The land should be ploughed properly before sowing the Jute seed. 2. Since the jute seed is small, land should be prepared to fine tilth. 3. Sowing of seeds is done by Drilling or Broadcasting methods. 4. The seeds are sown in the month of February on lowlands and in March-May on uplands. (ii) Harvesting : 1. The Jute crop takes 8-10 months to mature. 2. The harvesting period starts from July and continues till October. 3. The harvesting is done by hand by pulling up the stem or cut to the ground and tied into bundles. (iii) Processing : 1. After harvesting, the sheaves of Jute bundles are immersed in Flood water or stagnant water for about 2-3 weeks for retting. 2. Retting is a microbiological process which loosens the outer bark and facilitates removal of the fibre from the stalk. 3. After retting the bark is peeled from the plant and fibre is removed. 4. Then the fibres are stripped, washed, rinsed and cleaned and dried in the Sun and pressed into bales. (xi) West Bengal is the leading producer of Jute in the country followed by Assam, Bihar, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh. (D) Beverage crops: Crops that give suitable drink other than water like Tea, Coffee and Juices. (a) Tea: Tea : It is an important Beverage for the people of India as it works as a stimulant. Tea Gardens are set up in the hill slopes where shade trees are planted in advance. It grows well on hill slopes due to the favourable climatic conditions, high altitude and also because it prevents from water stagnation. Though Tea requires heavy rainfall but water logging at the roots of the plant is injurious. Even prolonged dry spells are unfavourable for the growth of the Tea Plantations. A good amount of Iron, Humus, Nitrogenous fertilizers like Ammonium and Sulphate are ideal for Tea growth which gives a higher yield. High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog are good for the growth of new leaves. Climatic Conditions: 1. Temperature: 20 C to 35 C 2. Rainfall: 150 cm - 250 cm 3. Soil: Well drained, Deep friable loamy soil, Rich in humus and Iron. Most of the Tea Plantations in India are found at the elevation ranging between 600 m to 1800 m. Methods of Cultivation: These are two ways in which the seeds are sown. They are as follows : (i) From Seeds: High quality seeds are sown in Nurseries and then once they grow into tiny plants called seedlings, transplanted in the tea estates at the distance of one metre from all sides. This is a transplantation method of Tea cultivation. When the tea saplings grow 20 cm of height, they are Transplanted in the Garden. 66 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 2. (ii) From Cuttings: Tea plants are grown in Nurseries from cuttings of High Yielding Variety of Crops. This is known as Clonal Planting. Harvesting : Tea shrubs take 3 years to 5 years to mature. Then they produce shoots, which are called as Flush . Flush consists of two tender leaves and a bud. The high quality tea is obtained from Flush. It is done by two ways: (i) Plucking of tea leaves (ii) Pruning of tea leaves Plucking of leaves is done by Women labourers. Tea is picked every 10 days in the lower altitudes but in higher altitudes they are picked every 15 days. Tea picking is carried out from early April to mid-November. Two tender leaves and a bud or shoot are usually plucked from each stem and is considered to be fine plucking. Pruning Tea leaves is an essential part of tea cultivation as it helps in maintaining the proper shape of tea bush to a height of about one metre. The objective of pruning is to have new shoots bearing plenty of soft leaves and also to facilitate the plucking of leaves. 3. Processing : Tea is classified into four types as follows: (a) Black Tea (b) Green Tea (c) Oolong Tea (d) Brick Tea (a) Black Tea : i. Withering : The tea leaves are spread out on racks and left for 14-18 hours to dry. They are also dried in the sun and left for a day or two. ii. Rolling : Through CTC (Crushing, Tearing and Curling) method, the leaves are processed. The leaves are rolled mechanically for 30 minutes between steel rollers to break up the cells to squeeze out the Juices. iii. Fermentation : The tea leaves are spread out on large boards in 10-15 cm thick layers in a special room with a room temperature of 40 C for 2-3 hours. The leaves turn copper red to brown colour and starts to unfold its unique aroma. iv. Drying : After fermentation, the leaves are transported through tiered dryers on metal conveyor belts and is dried for approximately 20 minutes which ultimately gives leaves its dark brown to black colour. v. Blending : The Tea-tasters and Expert Blenders blends the various Grades of Tea to maintain consistency of flavour as the taste of the Tea differ according to the different geographical factors. (b) Green Tea : These are of good flavour and are stronger stimulants due to their higher tannin or tannic acid content. i. Withering : The good qualities of tea leaves are spread out on laths and are placed out in the Sun to wither. ii. Heating : The tea leaves heated for 10 minutes with 280 C in cast-iron pans. Then the leaves are pressed against the hot surface. iii. Rolling : The tea leaves are rolled in a rolling machine for 10-15 minutes between two rotating metal plates. iv. Drying : The leaves are dried with a temperature of 60 C for 20-30 minutes. (c) Oolong Tea : It is a kind of Tea which is produced through a process including withering the plant under strong sun and oxidation before curling and twisting. Withering, rolling, shaping and firing are similar to Black Tea but baking or roasting is exclusive to Oolong Tea. (d) Brick Tea : This variety of tea is also called compresses tea. They are blocks of whole or finely ground black tea or green tea leaf dust that have been packed in molds and pressed into rectangular lock form. India is the World s Second Largest Producer of Tea in the World and the Fourth Largest Exporter of Tea in the World. Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 67 Sikkim, Nagaland, Uttarakhand, Manipur, etc., are the states where Tea is widely grown. Even the country accounts for being the largest consumer of Tea. (b) Coffee : (i) It is the Second most important Beverage crop in India. (ii) Coffee is one of the oldest plantation crops of India. The first seedlings of Coffee were sown in the Bababudan Hills in Karnataka. (iii) Coffee Cultivation requires plenty of cheap and skilled labour for various operations like sowing, transplanting, pruning, plucking, drying, grading and packing. (iv) The three main varieties of coffee grown in India are: (a) Arabica Coffee (b) Robusta Coffee (c) Liberica Coffee (v) (a) Arabica Coffee: It is a superior quality coffee and most expensive one. (b) Robusta Coffee: It is cheaper one as the cost of production of this variety is less in comparison to the yield per acre. (c) Liberica Coffee: It is used for making instant Coffee. The Coffee plant cannot stand direct sunrays and is thus grown under shady trees such as Silver oak, Orange, Banana, Jackfruit, Cardamom, Pepper, etc. (vi) Climatic Conditions : 1. Temperature : (a) Between 14 C and 26 C. (b) It can neither stand frost, snow nor high temperatures above 30 C and strong sunshine. 2. Rainfall : Between 125 cm and 250 cm of annual rainfall. Stagnant water is harmful and is thus grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 metres to 1600 metres. 3. Soil : Well drained, rich friable loams containing a good deal of humus and minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for coffee cultivation, Laterite soil rich in Iron for Coffee Cultivation. Methods of Coffee Cultivation : 1. Sowing : (a) Coffee seeds are sown in December-January in the bed 1.5 cm-2.5 cm apart. (b) They are propagated from seeds as seedlings or cuttings in a nursery and then Transplanted in the large Coffee fields. (c) Pruning is regularly done to ensure easy picking and heavy bearing of Coffee Berries. 2. Harvesting : (a) Arabica Coffee is harvested in October to November and Robusta Coffee is harvested in January, February to April. (b) Coffee berries are picked by hand. (c) The two methods of coffee harvesting is: (i) Selective Harvesting (ii) Strip Harvesting (i) Selective harvesting: Selective Harvesting is the picking of only Ripe Coffee Berries by hand. 3. Processing: There are two methods of Coffee processing i.e., obtain in Coffee Beans from the plucked Berries. They are: (i) The Wet Parchment Method: In the Wet Parchment Method, the fruit covering of the beans is removed before they are dried and then pulping, fermenting, washing and drying takes place. (ii) The Dry Parchment Method: The Dry Parchment Method has the following process: 1. The Coffee Berries are sorted, cleaned and the ripe, overripe and damaged cherries are separated. 2. The dirt, soil, twigs and leaves are removed from the cherries. 3. The coffee cherries are then dried in the sun and are further fermented by drying in the Sun for a week. 4. After drying, the machines peel off the two layers of inner husks. 5. The coffee beans are then sorted according to their size and quality and then packed in sacks for export. 6. The beans are roasted at temperatures of about 99 C and then ground into coffee powder. Roasting gives the brown colour, aroma and taste. The traditional Coffee producers in India are Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The other states where Coffee is grown are Andhra Pradesh, Odisha. 68 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Key Terms Drip Irrigation : Type of Micro-Irrigation System that involves slow dripping of water onto the roots of the plants either from above or below the surface to save water and minimize evaporation. Module : Cotton is mechanically pressed into large rectangular sized blocks called Modules. Lint : It is a short, fine fibre which separates from the surface of cloth or yarn during processing. Ginning : It is a process of separation of cotton fibre from the Cotton seed. Silver: At the Mill, the Cotton bales are cleaned by washing and then combed and made into an untwisted rope called a silver. Mesta : It is an inferior substitute for jute, can withstand drought conditions and can be grown anywhere under wider climatic and soil conditions. Retting : It is a microbiological process which loosens the outer bark and facilitates removal of the fibre from the stalk. Brown Paper Bag: Jute is also called the Brown Paper Bag in wholesale trades especially as the Jute fabric is used to make sack cloth. These sacks are further used to Pack Grains, Cement, Fertilizers, etc. Golden Fibre: Jute is referred to as Golden Fibre for its colour, silky shine and High Cash Value as it earns good Revenue. Clonal Planting : Tea plants that are grown in nurseries from cuttings of high yielding variety of crops are called Clonal Planting. Pruning : Trimming of shrubs to encourage growth and to remove superfluous or unwanted branches. Withering : It means to reduce the moisture content in the Tea leaves, make the leaves soft and to allow the flavour compounds to develop. CHAPTER-9 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES Topic-1 Importance and Classification of Industries Concepts Covered Agro-Based Industry Mineral Based Industry; Heavy and Light Industry Large-scale, Medium-scale and Small-scale Industry Public Sector and Private Sector Industry Revision Notes India is one of the newly Industrialized Country and making a significant progress in the Industrial Development. Industrialisation: It is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an Agrarian Society into on Industrial one. Industrialisation can help the Progress of Agriculture, Trade, Transport and all other Economic activities. Industrialisation is the key to economic development in India with its vast manpower and varied resources. It is the process of Manufacturing Consumer Goods and Capital Goods and of Building Infrastructure. Industry: It is defined as an economic activity concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or provision of services. Need for Rapid Industrialisation in India: (i) India is an Agricultural country and through Industrialisation the development of Agriculture can be initiated. (ii) Only Agriculture cannot generate employment and thus establishment of Industries can generate employment opportunities at a large scale. (iii) The development of Industries producing capital goods i.e., machines, equipment, etc., enables a country to produce a variety of goods in large quantities and at low costs and make for technological progress. (iv) Through Industrialization infrastructures like Railways, Roadways, Dams, etc. can be constructed which can enhance the future growth of Indian economy. (v) Industrialisation is a necessity for country s security because only through industrial development selfreliance in defence can be achieved where she can produce her own defence materials. (vi) Expansion of Industries in the backward regions of India are needed to counter the regional imbalance. (vii) India through Industrialisation should free herself from the adverse effects of fluctuations in the prices globally and should adopt the Policy to Import less of Primary Products and Export more Manufactured Goods. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 69 (viii) Industrialisation plays a significant role in the economic development of India as it contributes in increase in national income. Factors affecting the Location of Industries: 1. Geographical Factors: (i) Raw Materials (ii) Energy (iii) Labour (iv) Climate 2. Commercial Factors: (iv) Water Supply (i) Government s role (ii) Financiers and Capitalists (v) Transport (iii) Organisational or Management Skills (vi) Market Classification of Industries: 1. On the Basis of Source of Raw Material, Industries can be divided into: (a) Agro-Based Industries: Industries that depend on the raw materials produced by the Agricultural sector e.g., cotton, jute, textile, sugar, tea, coffee, etc. (b) Mineral-Based Industries: These Industries depend on Minerals, both Metallic and Non-metallic as raw materials and are based on ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgical processes e.g., Iron and Steel, Heavy Engineering, Cement, Machine tool, Basic and light Chemicals, Fertilizers, etc. (c) Forest-Based Industries: These Industries use forest resources like Wood, Rubber, Lac, Resin, etc. (d) Animal-Based Industries: The Industries which utilize the raw materials provided by animals like Woollens, Silk, Dairy products, Hides, Skin and Leather Industry, Poultry, etc. 2. On the Basis of Nature of Products, Industries can be divided into: (a) Heavy Industries: These Industries produce capital goods and consumer durables which are heavy and bulky by using heavy and bulky raw materials and thus called heavy Industries, e.g., Iron and steel Industry. They require huge investment and large number of labours. (b) Light Industries: These Industries use light raw materials to produce light-weight goods like sewing machines, cycles, toys, electronic goods, etc. They require less capital and less number of workers. 3. On the Basis of Size and Investment: (a) Large Scale Industries: These kinds of Industries need huge capital, large number of workers-skilled and unskilled and produce large goods and machineries, for e.g. Industries like Iron and Steel, Ship Building, Automobile, etc. (b) Medium Scale Industries: These Industries are neither big nor small and includes Industries like Cycle Manufacturing Industry, Paper mills, Radio and Television, etc. (c) Small Scale Industries: These Industries are mostly managed by private individuals on a small scale with less capital investment limited up to Rs. 1 crore, less workers, etc. E.g., Weaving Industry, Toy Industry, Food Processing Industry, etc. 4. On the Basis of Ownership: (a) Public Sector Industries: These Industries are owned and managed by the Central Government or the State Government of the country (Government holds more than 50% of the share and the rest is Public share) for the public welfare which includes Industries of Public utility like Post and Telegraph, Railways, Oil Refineries, Heavy Engineering Industries, Defence Establishments, etc. E.g., Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL), Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL), etc. 5. (b) Private Sector Industries: These Industries are owned and managed Privately by individuals or group of individuals (100% individual share). Industries like Reliance India Limited, Wipro, Infosys, TCS, etc. (c) Private Public Partnership (PPP): These Industries are owned, managed and controlled jointly by the private entrepreneurs and the government (no fixed share of Government and Private) e.g., Automobile Corporation of Goa Ltd. and Ipitata Sponge Iron Ltd. have been established with TISCO and TELCO of the Tata House as Private Promoters respectively. (d) Co-operative Sector Industries: In these Industries, group of people of same interest, limited means and resources (follows rules and regulations of government though not controlled directly by it) pool their physical and material resources E.g., Anand Cooperative Society, etc. Generally, people who are the producers of raw materials of the given Industry are involved in the Co-operative Sector Industries. On the Basis of Location and Market: (a) The Village Industries: In this type, the basic needs of the local market and its requirement like raw materials, labour, etc. are availed from the village itself e.g., Pottery making, Match box making, Weaving, Food processing, Khadi, etc. 70 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X (b) Cottage Industries: These Industries are organised by individuals with Private resources and with the help of their family members and their skills e.g., Weaving, Handloom, Carpet Industry, etc. 6. On the Basis of Finished Product: (a) Basic Industries: Industries which process and refine the natural substances and forms the basis of other Industries, e.g., Iron and Steel Industry, Petroleum Industry, etc. (b) Secondary or Consumer Industries: These Industries use the products of Primary Industries as raw material and make goods for direct use by the consumers e.g., Textiles, Sugar, etc. (c) Tertiary Industries: These Industries provide public utility based services like Railways, Transport, Post and Telegraph, Banking, etc. (d) Ancillary Industries: These Industries provide Spare parts or Components required by Large Industries like Heavy Electrical Industry, Locomotives, Aircraft Industry, etc. The distribution of Industries is highly uneven in India due to the non-accessibility of the raw materials and energy resources in different regions. The main Financial resources and other necessary enterprises are concentrated in big towns and cities which also influence the distribution of Industries. There are a number of factors responsible for the uneven distribution of Industries in India. They are: (i) All the Agro-based Industries like Cotton, Jute and Sugar are located in the areas where the raw materials are available. (ii) The Forest-based Industries like Paper, Resins, Plywood, etc., is located near the Forest areas. (iii) The coastal regions have huge availability of Copra, Coir and Fish canning and so the Industries are also located there. (iv) Most of the Oil Refineries are located near the Major Ports. (v) The heavy Metallurgical Industries are concentrated in the regions of Metallic Reserves in Karnataka, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. On the basis of major Industries, India can be divided into the following Industrial Regions: (b) The Mumbai-Pune Belt (a) The Hoogly Belt (c) The Ahmedabad-Vadodara Region (d) Bengaluru-Chennai Region (e) The Chota Nagpur Region (f) Gurugram-Delhi-Meerut Belt (g) Visakhapatnam-Guntur Belt (h) Kollar-Thiruvananthapuram Belt Key Terms Industrialisation: It is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an Agrarian Society into an Industrial one. Industry: It is defined as an economic activity concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or provision of services. Consumer Durables: Are a category of consumer products that do not have to be purchased frequently because they are made to last for an extended period of time e.g., washing machine, automobile, refrigerator, etc. They are also called Durable goods. Animal-Based Industries: The Industries which utilizes the raw materials provided by animals like Woollens, Silk, Dairy Products, Hides, Skin and Leather Industry, Poultry, etc. Heavy Industries: Industries which use heavy and bulky raw materials and produce heavy and bulky products are called heavy Industries, e.g., Iron and Steel Industry. Entrepreneur: A Person who sets up his own business, taking on financial risks in the hope of profit. Ancillary Industries: These Industries provide Spare parts or Components required by Large Industries like Heavy Electrical Industry Locomotives, Aircraft Industry, etc. Enterprise: An Organisation, especially a business, or a complicated, difficult and important plan that will earn money. Public Sector Industries: Industries owned by the Central Government or the State Government are called the Public Sector Industries, e.g., Bhilai Steel Plant. Cottage Industries: These Industries are organised by individuals with the help of their family member and their skills. E.g., Weaving, Handloom, Carpet Industry, etc. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Topic-2 71 Agro-Based Industries (Sugar, Cotton and Silk) Concepts Covered Location and Problems of Sugar Cotton Textile Silk Textiles Industry Revision Notes Industries based on the raw materials of the agricultural produce are known as Agro-based Industries. They include : (A) Sugar Industry (B) Cotton Textile Industry (C) Silk Industry (A) Sugar Industry Sugar Industry is India s Second largest organised Industry and is the second largest producer of Sugarcane in the World. Sugarcane is an important Cash crop and is crushed in the Sugar Mills to obtain sugar, and to make Gur and Khandsari. Molasses, Bagasse and Pressmud are the by-products of Sugar. Molasses are thick, dark brown juice obtained from raw sugar during the refining process. It is used, in the Alcohol Industry for the distillation of liquor, in the production of citric acid, chemicals, synthetic rubber and as fuel for Mills. Bagasse is the dry pulpy residue left after the extraction of juice from Sugarcane. It is used as a biofuel and in the manufacture of pulp and building materials and also used for the generation of steam and power required to operate the sugar factory. Press mud is a residue of the filtration of sugarcane juice. It is used for making Wax, Carbon Paper and Shoe Polish. Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer of Sugar in India followed by Bihar. The other Sugar Producing States are Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. In Peninsular India, Tamil Nadu is the leading producer due to higher per hectare yield, higher sucrose content and long crushing season and is emerging as the leading producer in the country. Besides Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are also big producers of Sugar. In recent decades, there has been a tendency of sugar Industry s growth towards the South. There are a number of reasons about the tendency of sugar Industry to migrate to South. They are: (i) The Maritime Climate of South which is free from loo and frost. (ii) The availability of black soil which is well drained and more fertile than Alluvial soil. (iii) The Sugarcane of the South is of superior quality with higher yield as compared to north. (iv) Excellent transport facilities in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu which has given them an advantageous position in relation to Export Markets. (vi) The cooperative societies in South are managing the sugarcane farms which are large in size by providing better seeds, fertilizers, irrigation facility. (vii) The Sugar Factories in South are located close to the sugarcane farms which prevents the loss of Sucrose content due to minimum transportation time. (viii) In South, the Farmers have new machinery and crushing devices which ensures high yield. Problems of Sugar Industry: (i) The Sugarcane produced in India is of poor quality with low Sucrose content. (ii) Due to inefficient and uneconomic nature of production, short crushing season, low yield and far off locations, the cost of production is quite high. (iii) Since Sugarcane is harvested almost at the same time, there is lot of pressure on sugar mills and cannot crush all canes which results in the wastage of canes. (iv) The supply of raw materials to sugar factories is irregular. (v) The Government has fixed the prices of sugarcane, thus if the farmers are not offered good prices they tend to switch over to other crops. (vi) Old and obsolete machineries are used in sugar factories which should be replaced by modern and new technological machinery. (vii) In rural areas, instead of Sugar, Gur and Khandsari are in more demand. 72 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X (B) Cotton Textile Industry: (i) India is one of the largest manufacturing countries and one of the largest Exporters of Cotton Textiles in the World. (ii) Cotton Textile Industry is divided into two sectors: Powerloom and Handloom. (iii) The important powerloom cotton mills are located in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu and the Handloom Cotton Mills are situated in Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Kanpur, Coimbatore, Howrah, etc. (iv) Maharashtra and Gujarat are the two most important cotton textile manufacturing states in India. (v) Mumbai and Ahmedabad contribute about 50% of the total installed looms. (vi) Mumbai is called the Cottonopolis of India and is also known as the Lancashire of India . (vii) Ahmedabad is known as the Manchester of India . (viii) There are many factors responsible for Mumbai and Ahmedabad to emerge as the most important Cotton Manufacturing Centres. They are as follows: (a) Regular supply or proximity to raw material. (b) Favourable climatic conditions specially the humid climate. (c) Good network of road and rail transportation within the country and sea routes for the international market. (d) Location of major ports facilitates the export and import facilities. (e) Availability of cheap and skilled labours. (f) Accessibility to capital since Mumbai and Ahmedabad are centres of financial and commercial resources. Even large number of banks and financial institutions exist which provide loans to the manufacturers. (g) Electricity supply by the Tata Hydro-electricity system in the Western Ghats to Mumbai and the Ukai and Kakrapara Hydro-electric units to Gujarat. (h) Good demand of cotton garments in India both in the Northern and Southern States and in the Foreign Markets. Problems of Cotton Textile Industry: (i) A long staple Cotton is not adequately grown in India and thus there is shortage of it. (ii) Many factories are old, obsolete and sick industrial units and thus face low productivity. (iii) The cost of maintenance and replacement of old machineries with the new ones require heavy financial investments. (iv) Due to the development of Cotton Textile Industries in countries like China and Japan and in African countries, the Indian cotton textile Industry is facing a tough competition and losing foreign markets. (v) The Cotton Textile is also facing a tough competition from synthetic fabrics like polyester, nylon, rayon, etc. which is in increasing demand. (vi) The Cotton Textile Industry is also facing a problem from inadequate production due to lack of regular power supply. (vii) Great difficulties are being experienced by mill-owners in obtaining the capital needed for Modernization. (viii) Acute shortage of power and obsolete machinery results in low productivity and poor quality of goods and thus effectively retarding the growth of Cotton Textile Industry. Handloom and Khadi Industry: (i) Handloom Industry is one of the oldest Industries of India providing employment to millions of people. (ii) The handloom Industry is mainly located in small town and rural areas. (iii) Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Assam and Andhra Pradesh generate about 50% of the total production while Manipur, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, etc., are some other important centres of Handloom Industry. Problems of Handloom and Khadi Industries: (i) Inadequate, insufficient and low quality of raw materials. (ii) The workers employed are mostly unskilled and belong to poor families. (iii) These Industries use old and obsolete technology which lack in competing with the fast changing new and modern fashions and designs. (iv) The Industries face a dearth of capital which force them to buy capital-saving techniques. (v) These Industries also face a stiff competition from mill-made cloth which is of superior quality and more in demand as it is cheaper. (C) Silk Textile Industry: (i) The Indian Silk Textile Industry is an integral part of the Indian Textile Industry and is one of the largest producers of Silk in the World. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 73 (ii) The Silk Industry in India employs around 60 lakh workers. (iii) There are four varieties of Silk produced in India. They are: Mulberry and non-mulberry like- Muga, Tasar and Eri. Muga, Tasar and Eri are also known as Non-Mulberry varieties of silk. (iv) Assam has the Monopoly of producing Golden-Yellow Muga silk in the world. (v) The rearing of Silk worms for the production of Silk is called Sericulture. (vi) The Silkworms are reared on Mulberry trees. (vii) About 90% of natural Silk produced in India is from the Mulberry silk. (viii) About 92% of country s Mulberry silk is produced in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Jammu and Kashmir. (ix) The Silk Industry is located only in the states of Karnataka, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Manipur and Meghalaya. Problems of Silk Industry: (i) Competition from artificial silk and synthetic fibres which is cheap and durable. (ii) Import of cheap and alternative textiles from China and other Asian countries. (iii) Use of outdated manufacturing technology, primitive and unscientific reeling and weaving techniques, etc. (iv) The price fluctuation of Raw silk affects the Weavers and the Industry. (v) The high production cost and absence of Proper Market. (vi) Poor knowledge of farm disease amongst the Farmers. (vii) Poor and unorganised management with no systematic testing and grading of Silk like in Japan. (viii) Lack of new technologies and modern power looms is affecting the growth of production. Key Terms Agro-based Industries: Industries based on the raw materials of the agricultural produce are known as Agro-based Industries. Molasses: It is thick, dark brown juice obtained from Raw Sugar during the refining process. Bagasse: It is the dry pulpy residue left after the extraction of juice from Sugarcane. Press mud: It is a residue of the filtration of Sugarcane juice. Gur and Khandsari: Gur (Jaggery) is a natural product of Sugarcane but is in more unrefined form than Sugar and Khandsari is a type of unrefined Raw White Sugar made from thickened Sugarcane syrup. Powerloom: It is a type of loom that is powered mechanically instead of using human power to weave. Handloom: A manually operated Fabric Weaver unlike motorized or electrically powered looms. Cottonopolis: It denotes a Metropolis Centred on Cotton trading servicing the Cotton Mills in its hinterland. Sericulture: The rearing of Silk worms for the production of Silk. Topic-3 Iron and Steel Industries Concepts Covered TISCO Bhilai and Rorkela Vishakhapatnam Steel Plants and Mini Steel Plants Revision Notes (A) Iron and Steel Industry: Iron and Steel is the Mother of all Industries and forms the backbone of Industrial Development as the production and consumption of iron and steel is one of the most important determinants of the level of Industrialisaton and economic growth of the Country. It lays the foundation of other Industries as it provides raw material to Industries for manufacturing industrial machinery, railway engines, railway tracks, electrical machinery, defence equipment, bridges, dams, shops, automobiles, etc. India has one of the richest reserves of all the raw materials required for the Industry, namely, iron ore, coal, and cheap labour, etc. India is the Fifth largest Crude Steel Producing Country in the World. 74 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X The main raw materials required for Iron and Steel is Iron ore, Manganese, Limestone, Silica, Chromate, Feldspar, Scrap Iron, Flux and Fuel. To make Steel, impurities in the Iron ore like, Sulphur, Silica, Phosphorous, Lime, etc., need to be removed. It is done through the following process: (a) During the Iron making process, a blast furnace is fed with the iron ore, coke and small quantities of fluxes such as limestone. (b) This slag floats on the molten Iron and is collected at the base of the furnace at regular intervals. (c) The product obtained is known as Pig Iron which can be converted into wrought Iron, Steel and Cast iron. (d) Through deoxidation the impurities are removed to convert Pig Iron into Steel. (e) The Steel is cast into ingots and rolled into different sizes. Integrated Steel Plants: In Integrated Steel Plants, all the processes, from processing raw material to rolling, are carried out at one place. Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO): (i) TISCO is situated at Jamshedpur and is the oldest steel plant in the country. (ii) It was established by Jamshedji Tata in 1907 and the production started in 1911. (iii) The plant obtains its raw materials from the following places: (a) Iron ore from Gorumahisani Mines in Mayurbhanj District of Odisha and Noamundi Mines in Singhbhum District of Jharkhand. (b) Manganese from Joda in Keonjhar District. (c) Limestone, dolomite and fire-clay from Sundargarh district of Odisha. (d) Coal from the Jharia and Bokaro Coalfields. (iv) Kharkai and Subarnarekha are the two perennial rivers that supply water throughout the year. (v) Labour is employed from the states of Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh. (vi) It has a good accessibility to market in Kolkata which is not only a market but also has facilities for Export of finished goods. (vii) Jamshedpur has a good Network of Roads and Railways that are connected to other parts of the Country. (viii) TISCO produces high grade Carbon Steel, Acid Steel and special Alloy Steel. Carbon Steel is used in structural fittings and Tin plates and Acid steel is used for making railway wheels, axels, bars, rods, sheets, etc. Bhilai Iron and Steel Plant: (i) Bhilai steel plant was established in 1953. (ii) It is in collaboration with the Erstwhile USSR. (iii) It is located in Durg district of Chhattisgarh. (iv) The plant obtains its raw materials from the following places: (a) Iron Ore from Dalli Rajhara Mines (b) Limestone developed in Nandini Mines near Bhilai. (c) Manganese obtained from Neighbouring District of Balaghat. (d) Coal is obtained from Bokaro, Kargati and Jharia Fields in Jharkhand and Korba in Chhattisgarh. (v) The main source of power is from the Thermal Station at Korba. (vi) Water is supplied to the plant from a System of Reservoirs at Tandula. (vii) Bhilai Steel Plant has excellent transport facility as it lies on the Mumbai-Nagpur-Kolkata Railway line which links to Major Markets. (viii) A large number of labourers are employed from the states of Bihar, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh. (ix) Bhilai Plant produces heavy rails, structural beams, Billets and Rolled wire, plates for Ship Building Industry. (x) The Plant also produces By-products like Ammonium sulphate, Benzol, Coal tar and Sulphate acid. Rourkela Steel Plant: (i) This steel plant was established in 1959 with the Technical Collaboration from the German firm, Krupps and Demag. (ii) It is located in the Sundargarh district of Odisha. (iii) The plant obtains its raw materials from the following places: (a) Iron ore from the reserves of Sundargarh and Keonjhar district of Odisha. (b) Manganese is obtained from Barajamda. (c) Limestone from Biramitrapur. (d) Dolomite from Baradwara. (e) Coal is obtained from Jharia, Talcher and Korba fields. (f) Electricity is supplied from Hirakud Project. (iv) Water is obtained from the Mandira Dam across the Sankh River and Mahanadi River. (v) Good Transportation on the Kolkata-Nagpur Rail line provides easy access to the Raw material producing Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 75 areas and to the Markets. (vi) Labourers are employed from the states of Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Odisha. (vii) Rourkela Steel plant produces products like hot-rolled sheets, cold-rolled sheets, galvanized sheets and electrical steel plates. (viii) It also produces large quantity of Nitrogen which is used for the manufacture of fertilizers and various chemicals. Visakhapatnam Steel Plant: (i) It is an integrated Steel Plant and is located at the port city of Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. (ii) It is the first shore based steel plant in India. (iii) The plant obtains its raw materials from the following places: (a) Iron ore is obtained from Bailadila in Chhattisgarh. (b) Limestone, Dolomite and Manganese is obtained from the mines of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. (iv) It gets its Power Supply from the Coalfields of the Damodar Valley. (v) The plant produces liquid steel and saleable steel. (vi) It is a Major Export Oriented Plant and it has an advantage of Coastal location. Mini Steel Plants: (i) Mini Steel Plants are smaller units, work through electric furnaces and mainly uses Steel scrap and sponge iron or pig iron as their raw material. (ii) Mini Steel Plants are distributed throughout the country far away from the integrated Steel Plants. (iii) Mini steel plants have the following advantages: (a) Scarp Iron is used as raw material which is cheap and easily accessible. (b) These Plants can be built with less capital investment in smaller size in Industrial Towns. (c) It does not cause pollution since it runs on Electric power. (d) These Plants cater the needs of the Local Market and thus reduce the burden from the Large Steel Plants. (e) Their construction and gestation period is short. Problems of Iron and Steel Industry: (i) Iron and Steel Industry is a Capital Intensive Industry. Many of the Integrated Steel Plants which are undertaken by the Public Sector, have been established with the help of foreign aid. (ii) The Industry lacks behind in using advanced technological inputs. Also there is a problem of low productivity of labour per capita which adversely affects on the production of finished products. (iii) The high grade coking coal used for smelting iron ore is limited. (iv) Many small iron and steel plants have closed down due to inadequate supply of power and increasing cost of raw material. (v) The Government has controlled and fixed the prices of the iron and steel which leaves for a marginal profit for the manufacturers. (vi) Inefficient management and improper functioning of the iron and steel plants in the Public Sector affects on the potential utilisation. (vii) Increasing demand of iron and steel results in the Import of large quantities of Iron and Steel. Key Terms Mineral based Industries: The Industries that use metals and minerals as raw-material for the production of goods are called Mineral based Industries. Scrap Iron: The discarded or waste pieces of iron to be recast or reworked. Pig Iron: Crude iron that is the direct product of the blast furnace poured into moulds and is refined to produce Steel, Wrought Iron or Ingot Iron. Ingots: It is a piece of pure material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape suitable for further processing. Galvanized Sheets: It is a sheet, strip or other steel item coated with a thin layer of zinc to prevent rusting. Mini Steel: Plants are smaller units, work through electric furnaces and mainly uses steel scrap and sponge iron or pig iron as their raw material. Integrated Steel Plants: A Unified Steel Mill where all the primary functions of producing steel is carried out like iron making, steel making, casting, roughing rolling and product rolling. 76 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Topic-4 Petrochemicals and Electronics Concepts Covered Organic Molecules Consumer Electronics Space Technology Policy Framework for Technology Sector Revision Notes Other Mineral Based Industries (B) Petrochemical Industry: Chemical obtained either directly or indirectly from chemical processing, of Petroleum oil or natural gas is called Petrochemical. India is amongst the fastest growing Petrochemicals Market in the World. Major Petrochemicals are Acetylene, Benzene, Ethane, Ethylene, Methane, Propane, and Hydrogen, from which hundreds of other chemicals are derived. Basically this Industry is located near an Oil Refinery which can supply the basic requirements of Naptha or Ethylene and Benzene. As transportation of petroleum and its products is always dangerous, less distance is always kept between the source of raw material and the industrial plants to avoid accidents and hazards. Hence, for safety reasons, Petrochemical Industries are located close to Refineries. These chemicals are used for manufacturing products like Synthetic fibres, Synthetic rubber, Ferrous and Non-ferrous metals, Plastics, Drugs and Pharmaceuticals. All these products are largely used in the Domestic, Industrial and Agricultural fields. The Petrochemical Industry produces the following products: Adhesives, Fertilizers, Dyes, Detergents, Insecticides, Pesticides, Resins, Crayon, Plastic sheets, Printing inks, Paints, Carbon Paper, etc. Advantages of Petrochemical Products: (a) Petrochemicals are cost effective, economic and cheap. (b) The Raw material is easily available and not depended upon Agricultural Raw Material. (c) It is a highly compact portable source of energy. (d) It is an excellent source of organic molecules for building Plastics, Medicines, Rubber, Fibre, etc. There are many Petrochemical Production Units in India. Some of them are as follows1. Herdillia Chemicals Ltd. in Chennai. 2. National Organic Chemical Industries Ltd. near Mumbai. 3. Petrofils Cooperative Limited (PCL) in Vadodara. 4. Indian Petrochemical Corporation Ltd. near Vadodara. 5. The Reliance Industries in Gujarat. 6. Haldia Petrochemical Ltd. in West Bengal. 7. The Bongaigaon Petrochemicals Ltd. in Assam. 8. The Indian Oil Corporation in Gujarat and Panipat. (B) Electronic Industry: The Electronic Industry in India began around 1965 with an objective towards space and defence technologies. India gradually developed in Consumer Electronics mainly with Transistor Radios, Black and White TV, Calculators and other Audio products and later Colour Televisions were introduced. The period between 1984 and 1990 is considered as the Golden Period for Electronics during which the Industry in India witnessed continuous and rapid growth. India is also an Exporter of a vast range of Electronic Components and products, e.g. Display technologies, Entertainment electronics, Telecom equipment, Semi-conductor designing, Electronic Manufacturing Services (EMS), etc. The Indian Electronic Industry has the following advantages which can effectively enhance its growth. They are: (i) Man Power (Skilled and Unskilled) (ii) Market Demand (iii) Policy Regulatory Support India has been experiencing a strong growth in the demand of Consumer products and durables in recent years which have facilitated the growth in the electronics sector both directly and indirectly. Important requirement of the Electronics Industry are: (i) Cool and moderate climate, neither cold nor warm (ii) Trained Manpower (iii) Cheap Manpower The electronic Industry in India is widely concentrated in the Southern States of India. Some of them are- Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 77 1. The Indian Telephone Industries (ITI) in Bengaluru. 2. The Electronics Corporation of India Ltd. (ECIL) in Hyderabad. 3. The Bharat Electronics Ltd. (BEL) in Bengaluru. (i) Space Technology in India: ISRO was established in 1960s by the Department of Atomic Energy. Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) at Bengaluru, Satellite Launching Station at Sriharikota and the National Remote Agency at Hyderabad was established which gave further impetus to space research programmes in India. India made remarkable achievement by launching Aryabhata, India s First Master Satellite which was aimed at growing advanced technology regarding the Agricultural fields, Weather forecasting, etc. Then Bhaskara-I was launched followed by the launching of Polar Satellite launching Vehicles popularly known as PSLV and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle known as GSLV. In 2008, India s first Scientific Mission, Chandrayaan-I, was launched to Moon. India made further progress by launching its indigenously built satellites such as APPLE and INSAT series. (ii) Software Industry: Software Industry is the fastest growing Electronic Industry in India. The Software Industry is a leading destination for the IT and IT-enabled Services Worldwide. The Department of Electronics has played an important role to enhance the competitiveness of India in IT. The Department has initiated a number of programmes for Manpower development, Quality upgradation, Stimulation of Software Engineering and Research. The BPO (Business Process Outsourcing) Industry is continuously growing. Software Giants, such as Infosys, Wipro, and TCS, are providing Software solutions to Clients Overseas. Bengaluru and Hyderabad are the leading centres of Software Industries in India. Bengaluru is referred to as the Silicon Valley of India and the IT Capital of India. Many MNCs, such as Capgemini and Yahoo, have forayed into the Indian Market. Key Terms Petrochemical: Chemical obtained either directly or indirectly from chemical processing of Petroleum oil or Natural gas. Organic Molecules: These are usually composed of carbon atoms in rings or long chains, to which are attached other atoms of such elements as Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. Consumer Electronics: It is an Electronic device or Digital equipment which is used everyday by people. Regulatory Policy: It is about achieving Government s Objectives through the Use of Regulations, Laws and Rules to deliver better economic and social outcomes. Space Technology: It is a Technology developed by Space Science or the Aerospace Industry for use in Spaceflight, Satellites or Space exploration. Chandrayaan-I: India s first Scientific Mission, launched to Moon in 2008. CHAPTER-10 TRANSPORT Topic-1 Importance of Transportation, Modes of Transport-Roadways and Railways Concepts Covered National Highways, Express Highways, State Highways, District Roads, Rural or Village Roads, Border Roads and Other Roads Broad Gauge, Meter Gauge and Narrow Gauge Revision Notes Transportation is the life line of people all over the world. Transportation indicates the growth and development of a Country. Transport refers to the activity that facilitates physical movement of goods as well as individuals from one location to another. 78 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Transportation in India has recorded a substantial growth over the years in terms of network and in its system. Importance of Transportation (i) Transportation facilitates access to natural resources lying unutilized in the hills, forests and mines and increases economic productivity. (ii) It links the backward areas to the urban cities and reduces Regional Industrial Disparity. (iii) Transport System helps in transporting the raw materials and other necessary machineries to the industries. (iv) Transportation protects the people during War, Natural calamities and Other crisis. (v) It helps in the process of Industrialisation and Urbanisation. (vi) The Transport System helps to enhance and strengthen the feeling of Unity and Brotherhood among the people. (vii) It has shortened the distances between various places. (viii) It helps in supplying finished goods to the Consumer Markets. (ix) Connects the remote areas and villages with cities. The present Transport System of India has developed Transport System over the three domains i.e., Land, Air and Water. This transport system in India comprises of four different means of transport as follows: (a) Road Transport or Roadways (b) Rail Transport or Railways (c) Air Transport or Airways (d) Water Transport or Waterways (A) Road Transport: India has excellent network of roads in the country connecting all the towns and cities to one another. According to National Highways Authority of India, India has the second Largest Road Network in the World. In India roads are constructed at a very fast pace but still the density of roads is very low. Jammu and Kashmir accounts for the lowest density of roads and Kerala accounts for the highest density of roads. The length of roads per 100 sq. km of area is known as Density of Roads. Road Transport is significant to India s economy and contribute about 4.7 per cent towards India s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The Road Network is important for the Country s growth, Social Integration and for the Security of the Citizens. The Indian Roads can also be classified on the basis of the type of material used for their construction i.e., metalled roads and unmetalled roads. The Indian roads are categorized into the following: 1. National Highways 2. Express Highways 3. State Highways 4. District Roads 5. Rural or Village Roads 6. Border Roads 7. Other Roads. 1. National Highways: The National Highways are the main roads constructed and maintained by the Central Government. These Highways facilitate Inter-state Transport and Movement of Defence Personnel, Defence materials in strategic areas, Connect to manufacturing centres, etc. They connect the state capitals, big cities and important Ports. The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) was constituted in 1988 and is responsible for the development, maintenance and management of National Highways. The NHAI is presently undertaking the developmental activities under National Highways Development Project (NHDP). In order to reduce the time and distance between the mega cities of India, the two major Projects undertaken by NHAI . They are : (I) Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) : (a) The largest super Highway project in India. (b) It connects India s four biggest metropolitan cities-Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai by six-lane Super Highways. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 79 (c) The main economic benefits of this project is: (i) Establishing Faster Transport Networks between Major Cities and Ports. (ii) Providing fast and smooth movement of products and people within India. (iii) Developing Industries and creating job opportunities in smaller towns through access to markets. (iv) It is also providing opportunities for farmers, through better transportation so that the agricultural produce could be transported to Major Cities and Ports for Exports. (v) Driving economic growth directly, through construction as well as through indirect demand for cement, steel and other construction materials. (vi) Provides an impetus to Truck transport throughout India. (II) North-South and East-West Corridors (NS-EW) : (a) NS and EW Corridors are a part of this highway project in India. (b) Jhansi is the junction of North-South and East-West Corridors. (c) The North-South Corridor connects Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir to Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu and the East-West Corridor connects Silchar in Assam to Porbandar in Gujarat. 2. Expressways These Highways are six lanes roads designed for high-speed movement of vehicles without any obstacles. The major Expressways are: (i) Yamuna Expressway (ii) (iii) Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway (iv) Mumbai-Pune Expressway (v) (vi) Delhi-Noida Direct Flyway (vii) Panipat Expressway (viii) Bengaluru-Mysuru Infrastructure Corridor. Ahmedabad-Vadodara Expressway Noida-Greater Noida Expressway 3. State Highways : The State Highways are constructed and maintained by the State Governments. The State Highways are usually roads that link important cities, towns and district headquarters within the state and connect them with National Highways or Highways of Neighbouring States. These Highways also connect the Industries, or Tourist places to important areas in the State. They also contribute in the development of states. 4. District Roads : These are important roads that connect Talukas, Rural areas and important Towns in the districts to the District Headquarters. These roads are within the district connecting areas of production with Markets. They are maintained by the Zila Parishads of the Country. 5. Rural or Village Roads : Village roads are inter-connected to each other and with the neighbouring towns and cities. Most of the village roads are unmetalled roads; they become muddy and sticky during the Rainy Season. It constitutes over 80% of total Road Network. Rural roads sector suffered from lack of Systematic Planning, Quality and Sustained Maintenance. These roads are in poor shape, affecting the rural population s quality of life and Indian Farmer s ability to transfer produce to market post-harvest. 6. The Border Road Organisation (BRO) : The Border Road Organisation was established on 7th May 1960 to secure India s Borders and develop infrastructure in remote areas of the North and North-East states of the Country. This organization has constructed the world s highest road from Manali to Leh at an average height of 4,270 metres. Besides constructing roads in strategic areas, the BRO also undertakes the task of Snow Clearance in high altitude areas, Construction of Airfields, Buildings and Permanent Bridges. 80 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Advantages of Roadways : (i) Roadways are ideal for short distances as through it every village can be reached. (ii) It is cost effective in comparison to other means of transport. (iii) It transports people and goods quickly and easily. (iv) It provides Door-to-Door Services. (v) Roads are easily constructed on hilly terrain where building Railway line is not possible or the Air services are inaccessible. (vi) The movement of goods through roadways is safer and convenient. (vii) Road transport is most suited for carrying perishable goods and people to and from rural areas which are not served by Rail, Water or Air transport. Disadvantages of Roadways : (i) Road transport is not as reliable as Rail transport. During rainy or flood season, due to poor quality, roads become unfit and unsafe for use. (ii) Road accidents frequently takes place and thus, it is not safe. (iii) This mode of transport is unsuitable and costly for transporting cheap and bulky goods over long distances. (iv) It gets delayed often due to heavy traffic, high concentration of all types of vehicles plying on road, Check Posts, Toll Tax and Octroi Duties Collection Points. (v) The Road transport is comparatively less organised, irregular and undependable. The rates charged for transportation are also unstable and unequal. (B) Rail Transport : (i) It is an important mode of transportation for both Freight and Passengers. (ii) It is the Fourth Largest and Busiest Railway Network in the World and is the World s largest Commercial or utility employer, with more than 1.4 million employees. (iii) Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai have their own Metro Networks. (iv) The suburban train that handles commuter traffic are mostly Electric Multiple Units(EMUs). (v) The Railways transport all kinds of goods from mineral ores, fertilizers, agricultural produce to iron and steel. (vi) The Railway System has been divided into 18 zones. (vii) Rail Gauge is the distance between the inner sides of the two parallel rails that make up a Single Railway line. (viii) On the basis of the width of the railway track, the Indian Railways are divided into three categories1. Broad Gauge 2. Metre Gauge 3. Narrow Gauge Advantages of Railways: (i) Railways help in the easy movement of people and bulky goods from one place to another. (ii) It helps in reducing long distance with respect to time. (iii) It helps in linking the Industries with the Market. (iv) It has developed and commercialised agriculture since the farmers can sell their agricultural produce easily. (v) Railways are an important source of employment in India since lakhs of skilled and unskilled people are employed in operating the Railways. (vi) It helps during famines or other crisis by carrying the food-grains and other necessary materials to the affected areas. (vii) They are instrumental in providing internal security and in making efficient arrangements in transporting defence equipment to the strategic areas. (viii) It has enhanced Tourism. (ix) It has made travel safe and comfortable. (x) Railways act as an integrating force irrespective of any social barriers and binding the people into one whole nation through its network. (xi) It has bridged the gap between the Villages and the Cities and helped in developing the villages with new and innovative ideas. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 81 (xii) It is cheaper and economical for common mass than Air transport. (xiii) Indian Railways has introduced Kisan Rail to facilitate the farmers of Maharashtra to increase their income by seamless supply of Perishable goods (fruits & vegetables) and Essential commodities during this Pandemic situation. Disadvantages of Railways : (i) Railway lines cannot be constructed everywhere especially in the hilly regions and remote dense forested regions. (ii) The railway requires large investment of capital. The cost of construction, maintenance and overhead expenses are very high as compared to other modes of transport. (iii) Rail transport cannot provide Door-to-Door service. (iv) Railway transport is unsuitable and uneconomical for short distance and small traffic of goods. (v) It involves much time and labour in booking and taking delivery of goods through Railways as compared to Road transport. (vi) Travelling by train to long distances is tedious and uncomfortable. (vii) Many industrial regions are deprived of train tracks and thus depend on other transport for transporting the cargoes from the station. (viii) Travelling by train is limited to land only; it cannot cross the Oceans. Key Terms Social Integration : It is the blending and unifying of social groups through peaceful social relations of coexistence, collaboration and cohesion. Gross Domestic Product : The total value of goods produced and services provided in a country during one year. Expressway : A highway especially planned for high-speed traffic, limited points of access or exit, and a divider between lanes for traffic moving in opposite directions. National Highways : They are the main roads constructed and maintained by the Central Government and facilitate inter-state transport and movement of defence personnel,etc. State Highways : They are usually roads that link important cities, towns and district headquarters within the state and connect them with National Highways or highways of neighbouring states. Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) : The largest super Highway project in India that connects India s four biggest metropolitan cities-Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. Border Road Organisation : It was established to secure India s borders and develop infrastructure in remote areas of the North and North-East states of the country. Electric Multiple Units (EMUs) : An electric multiple unit or EMU is a multiple unit train consisting of self-propelled carriages, using electricity as the motive power. Rail Gauge: Rail Gauge is the distance between the inner sides of the two parallel rails that make up a Single Railway Line. Broad Gauge : A distance between the rails of a rail road track that is greater than the standard width of 1,676 mm. Metre Gauge : They are narrow-gauge railways with track gauge of 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 in). Narrow Gauge : It is a railway with a track gauge 762 mm and 610 mm Railways. Topic-2 Air Transport and Water Transport Concepts Covered Airport Authority of India Inland Waterways & Oceanic Waterways Major Parts of India Revision Notes Air Transport is the most modern means of transport which is fast and time saving. India has both domestic and international airlines which carry passengers, freight and mail. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 82 The Airports Authority of India (AAI) came into existence on April 1, 1995 after merging the then two authorities: National Airports Authority and International Airports Authority. The air transport in India was managed by two corporations: Air India and Indian Airlines. In 2007, Air India and Indian Airlines merged into one and is called Air India. Air India is the 16th largest Airline in Asia. There are a number of private airlines too like SpiceJet, Jet Airways (India) Ltd., Inter Globe Aviation Ltd. (Indigo), Go Airlines (India) Pvt. Ltd., etc. There are three Cargo Airlines which are operating and providing Cargo services in the country. They are: (i) Blue Aviation Pvt. Ltd. (ii) Deccan Cargo (iii) Express Logistics Pvt. Ltd. Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd., established in 1985, aimed to provide Helicopter Services to the Oil Sector in Offshore Exploration, hilly regions, remote areas and for the promotion of Tourism. Advantages of Air Transport (i) Air transport is the fastest and most comfortable mode of transport. (ii) It can easily reach to remote and inaccessible areas like Mountains, Forests, Deserts, etc. (iii) It is very useful during the times of war and natural calamities like Floods, Earthquakes, Famines, Epidemics, Hostility and Collapse of Law and Order. Disadvantages of Air Transport (i) Air transport is expensive. (ii) It connects only major cities. (iii) It is dependent on weather conditions and can get delayed or cancelled causing inconvenience to passengers. (iv) It causes pollution as it runs on Petroleum which is a non-renewable source of energy. (v) It gives limited and restricted services between two destinations. (vi) It carries small tonnage but has high Freight charges. (vii) Its maintenance and overhead cost is too high. Water Transport: Water transport is the easiest and cheapest mode of transport. Like Road and Rail transport, no infrastructure is required to be built since water is available naturally. It has the largest carrying capacity and is most suitable for carrying bulky goods over long distances. It has played a very significant role in bringing different parts of the World closer and is indispensable to foreign trade. Water transportation is more efficient and environment friendly than other modes of transport. Water transport can be divided into two categories: (i) Inland Waterways (ii) Oceanic Waterways (i) Inland Waterways: India has an extensive network of Inland Waterways in the form of Rivers, Canals, Backwaters and Creeks. The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) came into existence on 27 October, 1986 for the development and regulation of inland waterways for shipping and navigation. Inland Waterways should be free of barriers i.e., from waterfalls and rapids. The rivers of Peninsular India are not suitable for navigation due to the following reasons: 1. The rivers are rain-fed and seasonal. 2. They are shorter. 3. These rivers have a number of waterfalls. The Inland Waterways Authority has declared five inland waterways as National Waterways: 1. National Waterway No.1 (NW-1): It comprises Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hoogly river system which connects Haldia-Kolkata-Farakka-Munger-Patna-Varanasi-Allahabad. 2. National Waterway No.2 (NW-2): The River Brahmaputra connects Dhubri-Pandu-TezpurNeamati-Dibrugarh-Sadiya and connects the North East region with Kolkata and Haldia Ports. 3. National Waterway No.3 (NW-3): The west coast canal connects between Kollam and Kottapuram. It is the most navigable and Tourism potential area. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 83 4. National Waterway No.4 (NW-4): It connects the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Puducherry through canals interlinking Godavari and Krishna rivers. 5. National Waterway No. 5 (NW-5): It comprises Talcher-Dharma stretch of river Brahmani, Geonkhali-Charbatia stretch of East Coast Canal. 6. National Waterway No.6. (NW-6): It is a proposed waterway between Lakhipur and Bhanga of the Barak river. This would help cargo transport through Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh. (ii) Oceanic Waterways: Oceanic Waterways play an important role in the transport sector of India s economy. India has a vast coastline of approximate 7, 517 kilometres, including Islands. 12 Major Ports, 185 Minor Ports and Intermediate Ports provide support to these routes. These routes are also used for transport between the islands and the rest of the country. About 80% of cargo traffic is handled by the Major Ports. The Indian Ports are classified into: Major Ports, Minor Ports and Intermediate Ports. The Major Ports of India are: (i) Kolkata (West Bengal) (ii) Haldia (West Bengal) (iii) Paradip (Odisha) (iv) Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) (v) Chennai (Tamil Nadu) (vi) Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu) (vii) Kandla (Gujarat) (viii) Mumbai (Maharashtra) (ix) Jawaharlal Nehru (Nava Sheva) Port near Mumbai (x) Mormugao (Goa) (xi) New Mangalore (Karnataka) (xii) Kochi (Kerala) Ennore Port near Chennai Port, is the first Public Company Port in India and is a Corporate Entity and not a Port Trust. Advantages of Waterways : (i) Water Transport is cheap and its maintenance cost is low. (ii) Heavy and bulky goods can be transported easily. (iii) It is very useful during natural calamities like flood and rain when the relief operations are carried out through Waterways. (iv) Development of shipping is essential for the defence of the country also. (v) It is a fuel-efficient and eco-friendly mode of transport. (vi) It is a safe mode of transport. (vii) Water transport plays important role in Foreign Trade. Disadvantages of Waterways : (i) It is a slow means of transport. (ii) It depends on Weather conditions. (iii) The long hours of travelling causes sea-sickness. (iv) Area of Water transport is restricted. Unlike Railways and roads, man cannot construct Waterways. (v) It is less safe as there is a danger of sinking of Boats and Ships. Key Terms National Airport Authority : It is constituted for the better administration and cohesive management of Airports. Inland Waterways : They are in the form of Rivers, canals, Backwaters and Creeks which facilitate the movement of goods and people within the territories. Oceanic Waterways : These are routes used for transportation between the islands and the rest of the country. 84 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X CHAPTER-11 WASTE MANAGEMENT Topic-1 Impact of Waste Accumulation Railways Concepts Covered Domestic Waste, Commercial Waste, Industrial Waste, Municipal Waste, Food Processing Waste, Agricultural Waste Eutrophication Bio-magnification Bio-accumulation Sanitary Landfills Revision Notes Wastes are discarded materials after primary use by humans which is not only an environmental problem, but also an economic loss. There are three types of wastes: (i) Solid Wastes (ii) Liquid Wastes (iii) Gaseous Wastes. Solid Wastes are accumulated in different places like in the backyards of the houses, street corners, outside hospitals and schools, near water bodies, etc. Some of these wastes are biodegradable and some of these are non-biodegradable in nature. Some wastes are toxic ones and some are non-toxic. Wastes originate from different sources, such as : (i) Domestic waste (ii) Commercial waste (iii) Industrial waste (iv) Municipal waste (v) Food processing waste (vi) Agricultural waste. Impact of Waste Accumulation: When these accumulated solid wastes are dumped and left unattended, they create following problems: (i) The wastes starts decomposing which leads to the growth of a number of Pathogenic Bacteria, Virus and Fungi. (ii) The Mosquitoes, Flies, Rodents, Insects, etc., also spread diseases due to the accumulation of wastes around the houses or nearby places. (iii) The Pathogenic Bacteria are also carried to our water bodies during rains as the rainwater carries the decomposed waste along with Pathogens. (iv) The landscape is spoiled due to the accumulation of solid wastes that is dumped and left for decomposition. (v) Sulphur and Nitrogen gases are produced due to burning of coal, fuel wood or petroleum which when reacts with Oxygen converts into Sulphur-oxide and Nitrogen-dioxide. (vi) Sulphur-oxide react with water vapour present in the atmosphere to form acids like Sulphuric acid and Nitric acid. These acids mix with rain and form acid rain. When the acid of Acid Rains falls on the building, a chemical reaction occurs that corrodes the building causing damaging marks on the statues and buildings. Examples of buildings and monuments affected by acid rain are the Taj Mahal of Agra, Houses of Parliament in London, Parthenon of Athens, etc. Pollution may be described as the addition of any contaminant ( solid, liquid or gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound) into the environment at a faster rate causing adverse change. There are mainly three types of pollution created by waste accumulation: (i) Air Pollution (ii) Water Pollution (iii) Soil Pollution The major causes of pollution are the burning of fossil fuels, like coal, oil, natural gas and petroleum. They are used to generate thermal electricity and power our vehicles. When the accumulated waste decomposes, it produces large quantity of methane gas which is highly explosive, if not managed properly. Waste dumped in water causes Eutrophication. Eutrophication is an ecological problem caused by human actions which contributes to extensive mats of floating plants in open water sources that results from enrichment by phosphorus and nitrogen nutrients. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 85 Algae, Plankton and other Micro-organisms use Carbon dioxide, Inorganic Nitrogen and Phosphate from the water as food. When aquatic systems have an overabundance of nutrients, the entire system suffers from eutrophication and become unlivable and even causes death to many aquatic organisms. Unattended waste, domestic waste, dumped wastes spread diseases through contamination. Choking of drains and gully pits by the solid wastes results in water logging which in turn gives birth to Mosquitoes and ultimately spreads diseases like Malaria and Chikungunya. Hazardous wastes are toxic substances like lead which can affect the development of a Child s Brain. Harmful toxins like Asbestos cause s chest and lung cancer, Mercury causes brain damage and death and Arsenic causes cancer. Radioactive waste produced by nuclear reactors and weapon factories causes serious environmental problems. Accumulated Wastes also affects the terrestrial life which includes human beings, plants and animals. Effects of accumulated wastes on Human Beings: (i) Accumulation of solid wastes looks filthy, smells bad and attracts insects and rodents that spread diseases. (ii) Sanitary landfills are not fit for human settlements because harmful gases like methane and carbon dioxide starts coming out within one or two years. Effects of accumulated wastes on Plants: (i) Plants are affected either directly from deposition of harmful toxins from wastes or indirectly through soil. (ii) The toxins cause different types of leaf injuries, premature leaf fall, reduces the rate of photosynthesis and transpiration, deposited dust on leaves block the stomata and smoke produced due to burning of waste affects the length of the root and shoot, etc. Effects of accumulated wastes on Animals and Birds: (i) Stray animals and scavengers like dogs, pigs, cows and rats are affected directly from the wastes as they feed themselves from those wastes. (ii) These animals sometimes eat toxic food from the wastes or non-degradable substances and die due to choking. Waste accumulation also affects aquatic organisms both in Fresh water and Marine. Pesticides and industrial and domestic wastes are the two categories of waste that causes harm to aquatic life. Biomagnification means accumulation of Toxic Chemicals by an organism from water and food within a food chain. Example presence of Mercury within Predatory fish. The phenomenon of concentrated toxic deposition at the higher trophic level is known as bio-accumulation. Methyl mercury can break the barrier between blood cells and nerve cells and reach the brain causing progressive irreversible damage. This was found in the Minamata Bay where people consumed fish which had Toxic Methyl Mercury and fell ill. Mercury contamination also results from wastes of other industries like Paper and Pulp Industry, Chlorine Industry, Pesticide Industry, etc. Key Terms Wastes: Wastes are discarded materials after primary use by humans which is not only an environmental problem but also an economic loss. Domestic waste: Wastes generated due to domestic activities are called domestic wastes. Fruits and vegetable peels, paper, polythene, discarded clothes, etc., are the sources of domestic waste. Industrial waste: Industrial wastes include any material that is rendered useless during a manufacturing process. e.g., Metals, Chemicals, Gases. Biomedical waste : It is generated from hospital activities, pathology, laboratory and other associated areas. E.g., Blades, Needles, Body part, etc. Municipal waste: Municipal waste is the waste generated in a Municipality or a Local Government area. Such waste is produced by Shops, Offices, Restaurants, Schools, Hospitals; etc. and is collected from public waste bins. Pathogenic : It is a medical term that describes viruses, bacteria and other types of germs that can cause some kind of disease. Eutrophication : It is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life usually resulting in the depletion of Dissolved Oxygen. Sanitary Landfills : These are the sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe. They are a method of waste disposal where the waste is buried underground or in large piles. Toxins : It is an organic poison formed by Bacteria. Biomagnification : It means the increasing concentration of substance such as a Toxic Chemical, in the tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain. 86 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Bio-accumulation : The phenomenon of concentrated toxic deposition at the higher trophic level. Methyl Mercury : It is an organic form of Mercury that is highly toxic and is the main culprit in Mercury poisoning. Topic-2 Need for Waste Management Concepts Covered Dermatophytosis Global Warming Greenhouse Ozone Layer Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC s) Acid Rain Revision Notes Waste is not only an environmental problem but also an economic loss. It causes different types of pollution. The rotting garbage produces harmful gases and mixes with the air causing breathing problems to the people. Transmission of diseases due to accumulation of wastes is a major threat to people and environment. Due to waste accumulation on land and water bodies, diseases are spread through Flies, Mosquitoes, Rodents and Pet animals. Various diseases are spread by the following Flies, Rodents and Pet animals: (i) Housefly: Typhoid, Diarrhoea, Dysentery, Cholera, etc. (ii) Sandfly: Kala-azar, Sandfly fever, etc. (iii) Tsetse fly: Sleeping sickness. (iv) Mosquitoes: Malaria, Filarial, Chikungunya, Dengue, Yellow fever, etc. (v) Rodents: Plague, Salmonellosis, etc. (vi) Dog: Rabies, etc. (vii) Cat: Dermatophytosis, Anthrax, etc. The Water is polluted due to the industrialization and Urbanisation because: (i) Sewage contains organic matter that cannot be decomposed. (ii) Industrial and commercial waste has toxic agents. (iii) Fertilizers and pesticides produce pollutants. (iv) All of these reach the water bodies either directly or indirectly. People are also affected by pollution because they drink contaminated water and also uses it for personal uses and recreation. Viral, Bacterial, Protozoan, Helminthic are some of the common water-borne diseases. The Greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth s surface. When the sun s energy reaches the Earth s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by the greenhouse gases. The warming up of the atmosphere is due to the greenhouse effect that retains terrestrial radiation. This increase in Earth temperature is called Global Warming. There are five gases which are mainly responsible for Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming. These gases are known as Greenhouse Gases. They are: (i) Carbon Dioxide (CO2) (ii) Methane (CH4) (iii) Nitrogen Oxide (Nitrous Oxide) (iv) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) (v) Water Vapour Global Warming has many effects. They are: (i) It is assumed that Global temperature is likely to rise by 2 C to 5 C during the next century. (ii) Because of the rise of temperature, there is a possibility of melting of ice caps at the poles of the Earth. (iii) There will be changes widely in the climate in the wind and rain pattern due to increase in temperature all over the surface of the earth. (iv) Higher temperature will cause rise in transpiration which in turn will affect the groundwater table. (v) Due to climatic changes, Pathogenic Diseases would increase and there will be rise in the insects and pests. Due to the emission of nitrogen oxide and CFCs, the layer of Ozone gas has been depleting. The chemical reaction that is produced due to the contact of Oxides of Nitrogen with Ozone destroys the ozone layer. Ozone layer is also called ozonosphere (90% occurs in stratosphere extending from 10-18 kms) containing high concentrations of ozone molecules (O3). Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 87 The Ozone layer absorbs the ultraviolet rays and infrared rays coming from the sun and protects the life on the Earth from its harmful effects. Without having an ozone layer, the direct exposure of the ultraviolet rays of the sun that reaches the earth s surface can cause many diseases like skin cancer and cataract. The ultraviolet rays cause genetic disorders which affect the heredity. These rays also disturb the ecological balance in marine ecosystem, e.g. algae, fish, etc. The ultraviolet rays also damage the physical and chemical properties of any complex chemical substance. Acid Rain: (i) Rain that contains large amounts of harmful chemicals as a result of burning substances such as coal and oil. (ii) It is a popular term referring to the deposition of a mixture from wet (snow, fog, dew, sleet, etc.) and dry (acidifying particles and gases, etc.) acidic components. (iii) It is caused by emissions of Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. (iv) Effects of the Acid Rain: Acid rain has shown adverse effects on: (a) Forests. (b) Fresh waters. (c) Soils, killing insects as acid rain increases acidity in the soil. (d) Buildings, monuments and statutes, etc. (e) On human health like nervous system. (f) Aquatic species and growth of the plants. (v) Due to acid rain and dry deposition of pollutants on the land surface, soil pollution occur. Polluted soils cause reduction in mineralization and decomposition processes. The toxic chemicals present in the soil destroy the earthworms, nematodes, etc. In order to protect the biosphere and prevent it from destruction, accumulation of waste needs to be checked. Waste Management is a necessity because improperly stored refuse can cause health, safety and economic problems. Waste Management is collection, transportation and disposal of garbage, sewage and other waste products. Key Terms Waste Management: Waste Management is the activities and actions to manage waste from its inception to its disposal. This includes collection, transportation and disposal of garbage, sewage and other waste products along with monitoring and regulation of waste management process. Dermatophytosis: It is a fungal infection of the skin, especially the feet. Global Warming: A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth s atmosphere. It is a sustained increase which causes changes in the Global climate. Greenhouse: Also called glasshouse, building designed for the protection of plants from bad weather by controlled temperature. Large greenhouses are important in Agriculture and Horticulture. Ozone layer: It is a layer in the Stratosphere that prevents dangerous radiation from the sun from reaching the surface of the Earth. Ozone gas absorbs Ultraviolet and Infrared rays. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC s): It is an organic compound that contains only Carbon, Chlorine and Fluorine, produced as volatile derivative of Methane, Ethane and Propane. Acid Rain: Rain that contains large amounts of harmful chemicals as a result of burning substances such as Coal and Oil. When Sulphur oxide and Nitrogen dioxides react with water vapour present in the atmosphere to form acids like Sulphuric acid and Nitric acid then these acids mix with rain and form Acid Rain. Disposal of Waste Topic-3 Safe Concepts Covered Segregation of Waste Dumping of Waste Composting of Waste Revision Notes Waste Management is required to manage waste from its inception to its disposal effectively. Waste disposal is the most important step of management of waste. This step is a must to prevent harm to the environment, as well as to prevent injury or long term progressive damage to health. 88 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Waste disposal is the method that is employed to destroy or recycle unused, old or unwanted Domestic, Agricultural, Medical or Industrial waste. There are different methods of safe disposal of wastes. They are: (i) Segregation of Waste (ii) Dumping of Waste (iii) Composting of Waste (i) Segregation of Waste: It is the first and important step of safe disposal of waste for an effective waste management. To segregate the garbage like glass, paper, cloth, metal, wet and dry food wastes, etc., different colours of dustbins are used. Two types of dustbins with two separate colours are used to collect the wastes: (i) Green coloured dustbins for Biodegradable wastes. (ii) Blue coloured dustbins for non-biodegradable wastes. Biodegradable waste products are converted into useful products like compost or Gobar gas. Non-biodegradable wastes can be recycled. (ii) Dumping of Waste: After Segregation, Dumping of waste products is the next procedure. Waste materials are dumped in open low lands far from the city, though not environment friendly but it is the cheapest method. The dumping grounds are open pits and thus become the breeding ground for mosquitoes, flies, insects, etc. When these waste materials are burned, they pollute the air and give out foul odour. Sanitary Landfill is another method by which the waste is dumped daily. These are the sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe. It is considered safe when it has completely degraded biologically, chemically and physically. The Sanitary Landfill system of disposing wastes is a biological method and is carried out with minimal environmental damage. Five phases are followed for the disposing of wastes(i) In the first phase, aerobic bacteria deplete the available Oxygen which results in the increase of temperature. (ii) In the second phase, anaerobic conditions become established and Hydrogen and Carbon dioxide are evolved. (iii) In third phase, lots of Bacteria and Methanogenic activity, i.e., production of Methane is established. (iv) In the fourth phase, the Methanogenic activity becomes stabilized. (v) In the fifth phase, the organic matter depletes and the system returns to Aerobic state. The Sanitary Landfills have many advantages over Open Dumping as given below: (i) The waste products of landfills can be used as direct fuel for combustion. (ii) The location of waste deposition in the landfills is monitored. (iii) After the landfills are completed they can be used as parks or farming land. (iv) Landfills are free from pollution and burning. The landfill sites are supposed to have vegetative cover by planting the non-edible perennial plants that are resistant to Drought. The selected plants should be able to thrive on low nutrient soil. Municipal Waste Management: The Municipal authorities take the following steps to manage wastes. They are: (i) Collection of Municipal Solid Wastes (ii) Storage of Municipal Solid Wastes (iii) Transportation of Municipal Solid Wastes (iv) Segregation of Municipal Solid Wastes (iii) Composting of Waste: Composting is a form of waste disposal where organic waste decomposes naturally under oxygen-rich conditions. A mixture of decayed or decaying organic matter is used to make the soil fertile. Compost is usually made from leaves, grass, vegetable peels, etc. which is allowed to decompose as a result of the action of aerobic bacteria, fungi and other organisms. Advantages of Composting: (i) Composting is a highly nutrient rich fertilizer source that will reduce the amount of synthetic fertilizers used in the farming fields. (ii) Compost decreases the erosion potentiality on the fields and enhances the structural ability of soil. (iii) It prevents plant diseases and also protects the spread of pathogen diseases. (iv) The presence of microorganisms like Bacteria, Fungi, etc. aerate the soil which speeds up composting and convert nitrogen to a usable form. (v) Compost increases the water content retention in sandy soil. (vi) It prevents pollution by preventing pollutants in surface water run-off from draining into water resources. (vii) Compost replenishes and revitalizes exhausted farm soils by replacing trace minerals and organic material. (viii) Composting is an effective way to reduce Greenhouse gas emissions. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 89 Key Terms Waste Disposal: Waste disposal is the management of waste to prevent harm to the environment, injury or long term progressive damage to health. Segregation of Waste: It means to segregate the garbage various types of dustbins are used to separate glass, paper, cloth, metal, wet and dry food wastes, etc. Dumping of Waste Disposal : Waste materials are dumped in open pits and become the breeding ground for mosquitoes, flies, insects, etc. Sanitary Landfill : It is a system of disposing wastes, is a biological method and is carried out with minimal environmental damage. Composting : It is a form of waste disposal where organic waste decomposes naturally under oxygen-rich conditions. Waste Topic-4 Reduce-Reuse-Recycle Concepts Covered Waste Accumulation Wasteland Management Revision Notes The three Rs - reduce, reuse and recycle help to cut down on the amount of waste and manages the waste in a constructive way. The three Rs are: (i) Reducing the waste (ii) Reusing the waste (iii) Recycling the waste The three Rs are intended to classify waste management into three important factors relative to suitability in terms of waste reduction. (i) Reducing the Waste: The wastes can be reduced by (a) The Change of Process (b) Waste Concentration (c) Segregation of Waste Wastes can be reduced by the process of changing the waste and non-usable materials into potentially useful materials. Reducing the amount of waste produced is the best way to help the environment. Buying products with minimum packaging, borrowing things which are not used often, starting a compost bin, saving energy and water by turning them off when not required are some ways of reducing wastes. By using scientific techniques such as precipitation and evaporation the amount of liquid waste can be reduced. Wastes are segregated by separating the hazardous waste from non-hazardous waste and then treating a small amount of hazardous waste. To reduce the environment damage caused by cars, increase use of carpooling with friends, walking, taking the bus or riding your bike instead of unnecessary driving. (ii) Reusing the Waste: The wastes can be reused without discarding them or throwing away the articles. Many materials like glass, metal, plastics, cloths, paper, etc. that is used in our day to day life can be reused. E.g., cloth bags can be used instead of plastic bags by making bags out of old clothes, donating old clothes, toys and furniture, etc. Old tyres and leathers are reused for making chappals, shoes, water bags, etc. Many artisans and artists reuse old materials to create beautiful home decors, decorating gardens with materials like tins, cans, bottles, broken crockery pieces, etc. e.g. Rock Garden created by Nek Chand in Chandigarh. Some solid wastes from the industry can be utilized directly, e.g., fly ash from power plant is used as a substitute for cement, for making roads and filing up low lying areas. (iii) Recycling the Waste: The process of changing the waste and non-usable materials into potentially useful materials is called Recycling. It is the key component of modern waste reduction procedure. Recycling reduces the consumption of raw materials and energy usage and also reduces air and water pollution. Bagasse, a by-product of sugarcane, is used for manufacturing paper pulp, for making packaging material of dairy products which helps in saving the cutting of trees which are normally used for making paper pulp. 90 Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X Plastic is non-biodegradable because the bonds of carbon in plastic are impossible to break down through a physical or chemical process. Waste plastic materials need to be incinerated, recycled or buried in landfills. The Environment Protection Act (1986) empowers the Central Government to coordinate actions of State Governments, plan and execute a nationwide programme for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution. The Ministry of Environment and Forests of the Government of India is taking initiatives, measures and making policies to protect environment through various schemes. The Environmental Policy by the Government emphasizes on the following: (i) To check the degradation of land and water through Wasteland Management and Restoration of river water quality programmes. (ii) To conserve and survey flora, fauna, forests and wildlife. (iii) To prevent and control pollution, afforestation and regeneration of degraded areas and protection of environment. (iv) To monitor the development, surveys, impact assessment, control of pollution, research to solve solutions, collection and dissemination of environmental information and environmental awareness is being utilized for the implementation of various policies. (v) To make laws, regulations, acts for environment protection and other policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues. The Government plays a major role in environmental protection. It is the Government s duty to protect and conserve critical environmental resources, ensure judicious use and ensure equitable access to environmental resources, minimise adverse environmental impacts on society, etc. The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) in Nagpur, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and Cleaner Technology Centre in New Delhi has applied cleaner technology concept for liquid waste management and gaseous and solid materials. Government alone is not responsible for protecting environment. Each and every individual citizen need to participate in preventing and protecting environmental crisis. Society plays an important role in Sustainable Environmental Management Processes. Through the following ways, society can play an important role for maintaining environmental standards: (i) All individuals have to contribute substantially and take it as a responsibility to protect the environment from pollution. (ii) The people together can organise themselves and take initiative in making the responsible agencies take actions if the air and water resources are unfit and do not meet the required standards. (iii) Groups of individuals together can educate people by creating awareness about environmental protection. (iv) The group housing societies can initiate steps for waste management by making provisions for segregating wastes and by making composting pits. (v) Group of individuals can reduce the environment damage caused and by cars by increasing the use of carpooling with friends, walking or taking the bus. (vi) Housing societies can make provisions for rain water harvesting to conserve rain water. Like society, individuals also play an important role in protecting the environment. It is the responsibility of each individual to protect the earth and provide conducive environment for oneself and several other species that evolves on the earth. Each individual should take the following steps for environmental protection: (i) Each individual should carry cloth bag or paper bag instead of polythene bags. (ii) Should use eco-friendly products. (iii) Should avoid the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as they destroy the ozone layer. (iv) Instead of CFCs, chemicals derived from peaches and plums can be used to clean the computer chips and circuit boards. (v) Use CFC Free Refrigerators. (vi) Should save electricity by switching off as and when not required. (vii) Use of renewable energy resources should be adopted, e.g., solar energy cooker. (viii) Must use rechargeable batteries which will help to reduce metal pollution. (ix) Use of mass transport system. (x) Should reduce, reuse and recycle the wastes whenever possible. (xi) Use Biodegradable Dish washing liquid, Laundry Detergent and Shampoo. (xii) Use of organic manure should be encouraged instead of Synthetic fertilizers. (xiii) Each individual should take a vow to plant trees as much as possible which can help to purify the atmosphere. (xiv) Should initiate paperless system by encouraging the use of computer storage system and should go for recycle used paper. Oswaal ICSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, GEOGRAPHY, Class-X 91 Key Terms Waste Concentration: In order to reduce discharge volumes Waste Concentration systems are employed. By using scientific techniques such as precipitation and evaporation the amount of liquid waste can be reduced. Recycling: It is the process of changing the waste and non-usable materials into new potentially useful materials. This is done to reduce the use of raw materials that would have been used. Bagasse : It is a by-product of sugarcane, is used for manufacturing paper pulp, for making packaging material of dairy products. Wasteland Management : Managing cultivable or non-cultivable lands for proper use or re-use them for different purposes. qq

Formatting page ...

Related ResPapers
ICSE Class X Question Bank 2025 :
by iamastudent323 
ICSE Class X Question Bank 2024 :
by iamastudent323 

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

Formatting page ...

 

  Print intermediate debugging step

Show debugging info


 

 


© 2010 - 2025 ResPaper. Terms of ServiceContact Us Advertise with us

 

iamastudent323 chat