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Class 10 /icse/ 2017 : Physics (Jeevana School, Ponmeni Jayanagar, Madurai)

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Raji Ganesh
Jeevana School, Ponmeni Jayanagar, Madurai
10 physics

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From 1947 onwards N.P. Chakravarti succeeded Wheeler in April 1948. His period saw the organization of a large-scale exhibition at New Delhi in 1948 on the Indian art objects. These objects were originally exhibited in London in 1947 and later on its return to India formed the nucleus of the National Museum which was opened on 15th August 1949 . On India becoming a republic and adopting the Constitution the following functions relating to archaeology pertaining to the Union and the State Governments were made: 1. Union : ancient and historical monuments .and archaeological sites and remains, declared by the Parliament by law to be of national importance; 2. State: ancient and historical monuments other than those declared by Parliament to be of national importance. 3. Besides these two categories, both the Union and the States would have concurrent jurisdiction over archaeological sites and remains other than those declared by Parliament by law to be of national importance. N.P. Chakravarti relinquished his post in June 1950 to continue until 1952 as advisor to the Survey. Madhav Swaroop Vats succeeded him and his period saw the enactment of the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Declaration of National Importance) Act in 1951. A. Ghosh succeeded Vats in 1953 FROM 1901 TO 1947 In 1901 the recommendations were accepted and John Marshall was appointed as the new Director General. Lord Curzon totally centralized the Survey and vested the powers with the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. Marshall assumed charges in 1902 and a new era started in Indian archaeology. His principles on archaeological conservation are still valid and followed even by modern conservation experts. The main observations of Marshall were: 1. Hypothetical restorations were unwarranted, unless they were essential to the stability of a building; 2. Every original member of a building should be preserved in tact, and demolition and reconstruction should be undertaken only if the structure could not be otherwise maintained; 3. Restoration of carved stone, carved wood or plaster-moulding should be undertaken only if artisans were able to attain the excellence of the old; and 4. In no case should mythological or other scenes be re-carved. 5. FROM 1784 TO 1861 6. Archaeological and historical pursuits in India started with the efforts of Sir William Jones, who put together a group of antiquarians to form the Asiatic Society on 15th January 1784 in Calcuta. The efforts put by Jones had a long backing, of enthusiasts and dilettantes like Tavernier, Finch and Bernier, Thevenot, Careri, Fryer, Ovington, Hamilton, Anquetil du Perron, Joseph Tieffenthaler, William Chamber, to name a few, who carried out survey of monuments in various parts of India, earlier. This endeavour put forward by Jones culminated in the publication of a periodical journal named, Asiatick Researches started in 1788. The journal brought to light the researches, surveys carried out by the society to make the public aware of the antiquarian wealth of India . The continuing fieldwork soon brought to light many antiquities and other remains which were later housed in a museum in 1814. Later, similar societies were started at Bombay (Mumbai) in 1804 and at Madras (Chennai) in 1818. The identification of Chandragupta Maurya with Sandrokottos of Greek historians by Jones enabled to fix a chronological horizon of Indian history. This was followed by the identification of Pataliputra (Palibothra of classical writings) at the confluence of the Ganga and Son. The decipherment of Gupta and Kutila script by Charles Wilkinson was a landmark in this aspect. Many individuals like H.T. Colebrooke, H.H. Wilson, Sir Charles Warre Malet, Lt. Manby, William Erskine, Collin Mackenzie contributed enormously in furthering the research and documentation. The appointment of Francis Buchanan in 1800 by Marquis of Wellesley to survey Mysore was a positive step by the then government. In 1807 he was engaged to survey monuments and antiquities in parts of present day Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The repair to the monuments were not thought of during this period and very sparsely certain monuments like Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri and Sikandara were repaired. The Bengal Regulation XIX of 1810 was the first attempt to make the government to intervene in case of risks to monuments through legislation. In 1833 James Prinsep became the secretary of the Asiatic Society. His most eventful achievement is the decipherment of the Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts between 1834 and 1837. The identification of Piyadasi with Asoka and the contemporary kings mentioned in his Rock Edict XIII enabled to fix a clear chronological bench mark for Indian history. The excavations at Manikyala stupa (now in Bangladesh) in 1830 and in sites in the Indus Jhelum region in 1833 and 1834 revealed Buddhist relics and through coins a new ruling family, the Kushanas was identified. 7. 8. Many individuals who contributed enormously, included James Fergusson who carried out extensive surveys of the rock-cut monuments in India between 1829 and 1847; Markham Kittoe in east India discovering the Dhauli rock-edict, and his surveys in Gaya and Sarnath; Edward Thomas in the field of numismatics; Cunningham who helped Prinsep in the investigations on the Indo-Greek and IndoScythic dynasties and also explored stupas in Bhilsa, etc; Walter Eliott who followed the work of Collin Mackenzie and copied nearly 595 inscriptions from Dharwar, Sonda and north Mysore, also reconstructed dynastic history of Chalukyas and other south Indian dynasties through coins; Colonel Meadows Taylor who carried out extensive surveys on the megalithic monuments of south India; Dr. Stevenson and Dr. Bhau Daji carried out surveys of the cave-inscriptions of western India. 9. Meanwhile Alexander Cunningham a Second Lieutenant of the Bengal Engineers who initially assisted James Prinsep formulated a plan in 1848 for an Indian Archaeological Survey and placed it before the British government, but, without success. During the same period many eventful decisions were taken by the government on the recommendations of the Royal Asiatic Society of the United Kingdom . Upon these recommendations, the Indian government sanctioned a small amount for repairs to the monuments. Lord Hardinge initiated a system approving proposals submitted by individuals based on their research and knowledge of Indian antiquities. Some of them were Markham Kittoe, for conducting operations in Bihar and Banares; Major F. Maisey, for drawing the antiquities at Kalinjar and sculptures at Sanchi and Captain Gill to copy the paintings of Ajanta Caves; Lt. Brett to take impressions of the cave-inscriptions. The following years saw the uprising of the Indian soldiers and the First War of Indian Independence in 1857 virtually put a standstill of archaeological pursuits.

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