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Agriculture Importance - - - While the relative importance of agriculture has been reduced due to rapid industrialisation, it still forms the backbone of Indian economy: nearly half the economy and 2/3rds of the population directly or indirectly depends on agriculture. Agriculture not only provides food and fodder to human beings and livestock, but also is the source of raw materials for many industries, viz. textiles, sugar, food processing, vanaspati, etc. Agriculture also acts as a consumer of many industrial products such as tractors, harvesters, threshers, chemical fertilizers and pesticides. It is a source of employment for millions of people. Many agricultural products like tea, coffee, jute and cotton bring in the muchneeded foreign exchange. Problems Environ mental factors Institutional factors Economic factors A large part of the net sown area continues to depend on monsoon rains, which are unreliable, irregular and unevenly distributed. In spite of all measures taken for irrigation, a large part of the net sown area lacks irrigation facilities and depends on the monsoon rains. Excessive rainfall, or lack thereof, leads to crop failure. Soil erosion results in loss of soil fertility, which results in the loss of valuable crop land and low crop yields. Due to rapid urbanisation and population growth, much of the land is diverted for non-agricultural uses such as housing, etc., which results in the decline in the net sown area. High indebtedness of poor farmers, laws of inheritance, population pressure, decline of joint families, etc. leads to the fragmentation of landholdings. o These small holdings do not generate enough income to make sizeable investments to support modern agriculture techniques. o A lot of unnecessary wastage of time, money and energy occurs. o A lot of fertile land is wasted in raising boundaries. While the system of land tenure, or zamindari, has been abolished, its effects have not been completely wiped out. The tenants and sharecroppers are paid insufficient wages and have to work as bonded labourers. Thus, neither the owners nor the tenants have the urge to raise production. Indian agriculture is predominantly of subsistence type, as the percapita cultivable land is a mere 1/4th hectare and the farm produce is just enough to sustain the farmer. Technological factors The farmers are poor, debt-ridden and uneducated. They are not able to invest the requisite resources in agriculture. Governmentintroduced schemes for providing loans have not yet been sufficient. The opening of Indian markets to the world led to the withdrawal of the subsidies from the government to the farmers. This increased the cost of production in India; meanwhile, the cost has been declining in the developed countries due to better support to farmers. Most of the farmers in India still employ old and inefficient techniques of agriculture. While HYV-seeds have been introduced, they are out of reach for the majority of farmers due to paucity of funds. Usage of chemical biocides is still not widespread among the farmers. Crops, therefore, suffer from many diseases. Mechanisation in the process of production is quite limited. Reforms Green Revolution. It is regarded as the greatest turning point in the history of Indian agriculture. It is used to describe the manifold increase in India s farm productivity, particularly food grains, due to the adoption of the New Agricultural Strategy and related technologies for agriculture, as part of the Indian Agriculture Development Project (IADP). The key elements of the new strategy include: - Use of High-Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds; Extension of irrigation facilities; Proper use of chemical fertilisers and biocides (pesticides, weedicides, insecticides); Consolidation of fragmented landholdings; Rural electrification; Supply of agricultural credit; and Improvement in marketing and storage facilities and in education of farmers. Other reforms. - - - Land reforms introduced in the first five-year plan aimed to completely abolish the zamindari system and all intermediaries. Attempts have been made to consolidate fragmented agricultural landholdings and legislations have been passed in most states to prevent fragmentation of landholdings beyond a certain limit. The Agricultural Price Commission has been set-up which controls the prices of the agricultural products, to protect the farmers against exploitation. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NaBARD) is a special bank which provides loans at fair rates of interest to the farmers. The Government has started Kisan Call Centres, where agents called Farm Tele-Advisors (FTAs) respond to the queries of the farmers and provide knowledge about the modern methods of farming. Soil-testing laboratories have been set-up to check the health and soil fertility to ensure balanced use of chemical fertilisers. Types of Farming Subsistence farming. It involves the cultivation of food crops like rice, wheat and pulses exclusively for the consumption of the entire produce by the farmer and his family. It is characterized by - - Small and scattered landholdings; Use of traditional methods of agriculture use of primitive tools such as hoe and digging sticks, no use of fertilisers or HYV-seeds, lack of electricity and irrigation, etc. Very low yield-per-hectare, which is entirely consumed by the family; and Dominance of food crops and no surplus left for sale in the market. Commercial farming / Agribusiness. It is the opposite of subsistence farming. It involves the cultivation of predominantly cash crops and livestock rearing, exclusively for sale in the market. It is characterized by - Prevalence in areas where there are large landholdings and the market economy is well-developed; Use of HYV-seeds, fertilizers and biocides to obtain maximum output; and Widespread mechanisation of farming procedures. It has shown good results in Punjab, Haryana, western U.P., Gujarat and A.P. Other states have smaller landholdings and thus commercial farming cannot be popularised. Shifting Agriculture / Slash-and-burn method. It is a primitive agricultural practice in which: - a patch of forest is cleared, trees are felled and the stumps are set on fire; seeds are sown on the cleared patch of land, following no specific agricultural practices like ploughing of the soil; after 2-3 years, when the soil fertility is lost, the fields are abandoned and left fallow to regain fertility; another patch of land is cleared and the same process is repeated. This type of cultivation is known by different names in different regions: Name Jhum Podu Khil Region Assam A.P. Himalayan Name Ponam Koman / Bringg Kuruwa Region Kerala Odisha Jharkhand This type of farming has been discouraged as far as possible due to its many disadvantages: - Large-scale soil degradation; Floods and silting in the lower reaches of the riverine flood plains; Very low productivity of the land; Unstable life of farmers and animals. Alternatives to shifting cultivation include: - - Intercropping It is the practice of growing two or more crops next to each other at the same time in a way that they do not compete with each other for space, nutrients water and sunlight. Timber tree plantations In the areas where shifting cultivation is practised, large-scale plantation of fast-growing timber varieties is followed, which helps in restoration of the land, creation of wealth for the land owners as well as a reduction in shifting cultivation. Crops like dry paddy, maize, millets and vegetables are grown in this type of farming. Intensive farming. It is a system in which small farms are cultivated intensively using large inputs of labour, manures and fertilisers. Its main features include: - HYV-seeds, rich manure and fertilizers, irrigation facilities and modern scientific methods of farming are used to increase the productivity. A large capital investment is made on a small piece of arable landholding. More than one crop is cultivated on the same field. It is a labour-intensive system, thus, it is practised in densely populated areas where limited arable land is available, such as the irrigated areas of the plains of northern India, the coastal areas of south India, China and Japan. The main crops grown are rice and wheat. Extensive farming. It is a system in which relatively small amounts of capital and labour investment are applied to relatively large tracts of land, such that most of the work is mechanized. Its main features are: - The farmer specialises in the production of one or two major commercial crops. The landholdings are huge in size. Machines are mostly used for cultivation, as the labour investment is less. It is highly capital-intensive. The yield-per-hectare is very low as personal care cannot be given to vast fields. However, the overall crop yield is very high due to large size of farms. A large surplus is left for sale. It is environment-friendly due to less use of chemical fertilizers and biocides. This type of farming is almost absent in India except some rich farmers of Punjab, Haryana and U.P. The crops grown are rice, wheat, sugarcane, etc. Plantation farming. Plantations are large tracts of land or estates used for cultivation of a single agricultural crop over a large area. - One crop is cultivated using modern scientific methods and machinery on a large tract of land. Chemical fertilisers and biocides are used extensively. It requires a huge skilled labour force and huge capital investments. Plantation crops usually cater to the export market and earn foreign exchange. It is carried on in the hills of south India and NE India where tea, coffee and rubber are cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka, and Assam lowlands. Other important crops include coconut, spices, cinchona, etc. Mixed farming. It involves the cultivation of crops and raising of livestock simultaneously on the same farm. The main features are: - The best quality of seeds, advanced technology of planting, sowing and harvesting and chemical fertilizers are used to obtain higher yield. - Two or more crops are grown together, such that they have varying maturation periods. - Crop rotation is a common practice as it maintains the fertility of the soil and protects the farmers against crop failures. - Subsidiary occupations like poultry, dairy farming and horticulture are also practised on the same farm. Mixed farming ensures a steady income for the farmers because if agriculture fails due to adverse climate or any other reason, they can look back to the other means like cattle-raising for income. Agricultural Seasons Criteria Sowing season Harvesting season Crops Kharif Rabi June-July OctoberNovember September-October March-April Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, ragi, sugarcane, pulses, cotton, jute Wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard, potatoes Zayad/Zaid Z. Kharif Z. Rabi AugustFebruarySeptember March DecemberApril-May January Jowar, maize, summer Oilseeds vegetables and fruits This categorisation of the cropping season does not exist in southern India, because here, the temperatures are sufficiently high to grow tropical crops during any period in the year, provided the soil moisture is available. Food Crops Rice (North India Kharif; South India Year-round). Temperature Climatic conditions Rainfall Flowering and fertilisation: 16 C-20 C Ripening: 18 C-32 C >35 C affect grain retention and grain-filling. 5-10cm of standing water during earlier growth phase, therefore, monsoon lands are best suited for rice. 150-300cm for growth. Rice is mainly an irrigated crop. Deep fertile clayey or loamy soil. Rice thrives in the alluvial soils of the river banks. Soil The soil should retain standing water in the field, which protects crops from pests which cannot survive underwater. Dry/Upland rice Lowland rice Grown on mountainous Grown on low-lying regions. regions. Sown in March-April. Sown in June. Types of Harvested in September- Harvested in October. rice October. Depends on the distribution of Requires plenty of water during rainfall only. sowing and harvesting period. Entire crop is used locally. Produce is used for local consumption as well as supplied to other regions. In the dry method, the seeds are sown in rows using drills (in heavy rainfall areas) and scattered with hands (in moderate rainfall areas). It is confined to areas which depend on rains and do not have irrigation facilities. In the puddled/wet method, the land is ploughed thoroughly and filled with 3-5cm of standing water in the field, which is maintained up to a depth of 2-3cm till the seedlings are well established. It is practised in areas having assured and adequate supply of water. Sowing of seeds is done in the following ways. Broadcasting o After ploughing the land, the seeds are scattered by hand all over the field. o Inferior quality seeds are sown; hence yield is low. o It is prevalent in those regions where labour is scarce and soil is infertile. Drilling Methods of o Seeds are dropped in the furrows made by a plough in a cultivation straight line, using a bamboo drill in a systematic way. o Though time-consuming, the germination rate of these seeds is high and the wastage is minimal. o It is mostly used in Peninsular India. Dibbling It refers to the planting of seeds at regular intervals in the furrows made by a dibber (a simple pointed stick). It is used in conjunction with puddling. Transplanting o Seedlings are first grown in nurseries and after 4-5 weeks when saplings attain 25-30cm height they are transplanted into prepared rice fields (flooded with 2-3cm deep water) in groups of 4-6 at a distance of 30-45cm. o This method is very popular as Only the healthy plants are resown and unhealthy ones are discarded. Weeds are removed while resowing. There is less wastage of seeds as compared to broadcasting. It gives higher yield. Distribution o As the entire process is done by hand, a lot of manual labour is required, which is easily available. Japanese method o HYV-seeds called Japonica are used. o As it is an improved form of transplantation, it includes Preparation of seedlings in nurseries. Transplanting the seedlings about 15cm apart in rows fixed at a distance of 25cm, allowing easier weeding. Extensive use of manure to increase the yield. Harvesting of rice: It is labour-intensive as each stalk is hand-reaped. The fields are drained dry just before harvesting. Then, a sickle or scythe is used to cut each stem, about 60cm below the grain to facilitate threshing. The cut-crop is left to sun-dry to reduce the moisture content. Processing of rice: Threshing is done by beating the sheaves against wooden bars to separate the grain from the stalks. It is done in the rice fields to minimise the cost of transportation. Winnowing is the process of removing the unwanted husk from the grains, by pouring them from a height on a windy day; the grains fall to the ground and the chaff is blown aside. Milling is done to remove the yellowish husk from the grains. o It is done by parboiling them and then drying them before removing the outer cover. o The farmer used to hit the grain in a wooden mortar with a heavy pestle, resulting in high percentage of broken grains. o Machine-milled and polished rice has a glossy texture, but lacks nutrition, as much of its nutrients are lost due to excessive rubbing. After milling, the rice is graded and stored in sacks. Place Distinguishment West Bengal Leading crop; three types: Aus, Aaman, Boro. Largest area under cultivation. U.P. Highest yield-per-hectare due to 97% of rice area under Punjab irrigation and higher input of HYV-seeds, fertilisers and mechanisation. Wheat (Rabi). Sowing: 10 C to 15 C Harvesting: 20 C to 25 C 12.5cm in winter for grain filling and increased yields. Rainfall ~80cm for growth. High heat and excessive rainfall are unsuitable for wheat; that is why it is not cultivated in West Bengal or the extreme south. Well-drained loams and clay loams, with sufficient soil moisture during germination. Temperature Climatic conditions Soil The normal Bread variety (Triticum aestivum) is grown on the irrigated lands with the alluvial soils of the Great Plains. The harder, Macaroni variety (Triticum durum) is grown on the clayey black soils of the central and southern parts. A lot of fertilisers are needed. Triticum dicoccum grows on the red soil of the Nilgiri hills. Sowing of seeds: The fields are pulverised and ploughed several times with compact seed-beds before the seed is sown, usually in October-November. Seeds can be sown by drilling or broadcasting. They germinate in about 3-4 days. The plant needs irrigation 3-4 times during the growing period. Harvesting: During March-April in the north and January in the south. Mostly by cutting the plants with a sickle close to the ground. Methods of cultivation However, machines are used in Punjab, Haryana and western U.P. Processing: The traditional method of threshing (getting the crop trampled under the bullock s feet) is used to separate the grain from the husk. Since it is time-consuming, it is now done by threshers. After threshing, the wheat is winnowed and sifted. In Punjab, combines are introduced, which reap, clean, thresh, winnow and sift the grains. The next process is milling. The roller process is very perfect. U.P. is the largest producer of wheat. o The western part is more suitable due to its favourable climate. o The alluvium deposited by the Ganga and its tributaries and a close network of canals, supplemented by a large number of tube-wells, helped U.P. o The rainfall is between 3-7cm during winter; hence irrigation Distribuis necessary. Wheat grown in drier parts of the country with tion irrigation is of superior quality than that in rain-fed areas. U.P., Punjab and Haryana together have earned the distinction of being called the granary of India due to the Green Revolution. In M.P., Himachal Pradesh and J&K, wheat is grown under rainfed conditions, therefore, the yield is low. Millets. The term refers to a number of inferior grains like jowar, bajra and ragi, which serve as food grains for the poorer sections of the society and whose straw makes valuable cattle fodder. They are annual warm weather grasses grown under conditions where the soil is rather infertile, are round in shape and are grown on the top portion of the plant. - Jowar, cholam, sorghum or great millet (Kharif and Rabi): Germination: 27 C-32 C Temperature Growing: >16 C Climatic conditions Arid & semi-arid areas: <45cm. Rainfall More concentration in areas having <100cm. o Black clayey loams of the Peninsular plateau. Soil o Kharif jowar on light sandy soil. o Also on red, grey and yellow loams. o The soil management before sowing plays a key role in the Methods dry-farming areas. of o The seeds are mostly sown via broadcasting, but also cultivation dibbled in some areas. o The crop matures in 4-5 months. Largest Maharashtra producer - Bajra, cumbu or bulrush millet (short-season Kharif): Temperature 25 C-30 C 40-50cm. Seldom grown in >100cm. Climatic Rainfall Bright sunshine after light monsoon showers is conditions very useful in the growing stage. It is grown either as a pure or as a mixed crop with cotton, jowar or ragi. Soil Black cotton soils, sandy loams with good drainage. Largest Rajasthan producer - Ragi or buckwheat (Kharif): Temperature 20 C-30 C 50-100cm. Climatic It is one of the hardiest crops. It can grow under conditions Rainfall conditions of very low rainfall and can withstand very severe drought. Soil Black cotton soils, sandy loams with good drainage. May-August Sowing Sowing and September-January harvesting Harvesting Largest Karnataka producer Pulses. - Pulses form a very important part of the Indian diet, as they have great nutritive value and provide the much-needed protein to a large vegetarian population. - They also serve as excellent forage and grain concentrates in cattle-feed. - Being leguminous crops with root nodules, they perform nitrogen fixation and hence are usually rotated with other crops to maintain the natural soil fertility. Temperature 20 C-25 C Climatic conditions Rainfall 50-75cm. Soil Dry, light loams free from coarse material; black soil; red soil When the leaves turn reddish brown from green, plants are uprooted Method of and dried in the Sun. After that, they are threshed by sticks or by cultivation trampling under bullock s feet. Crops Kharif Tur, urad, moong Rabi Largest producers Bengal gram (rotated as pure or mixed crop with wheat); khesari and masur. M.P., Maharashtra, U.P., Rajasthan and A.P. Cash Crops Sugarcane (Kharif). 20 C-26 C Growth starts at 20 C; Growth accelerates with increase up to 24 C; Growth stops at 26 C. 100-150cm Rainfall The sucrose content decreases if heavy rains continue for long, while its deficiency produces a fibrous crop. Frost is fatal. Short, cool, dry winter season during ripening and harvesting is ideal. Well-drained rich alluvial soil, heavy loams or black soil. Clayey loams of the Great Plains. Black soils, brown/reddish loams and laterites in the Peninsula. Sugarcane is soil-exhausting; hence, the soil is supplemented with nitrogenous fertilizers. Sowing: Sett method o Healthy and well-matured sugarcanes are cut into several pieces at the joint; these are called setts. o They are planted in well-prepared, mature furrows at regular intervals of 30-45cm to facilitate hoeing, weeding, irrigation and harvesting. o They quickly become established and in about 2 weeks the buds sprout to form 4-5 new stalks from each cutting. Ratooning o During the first harvest, the sugarcane is cut, leaving a little bit of the stalk in the soil with roots. o The stalk left in the soil is well-fertilized and it soon puts out new shoots or ratoons. The second or any successive crop obtained from the roots of the leftover crop is called a Ratoon. o Advantages Crops need not be planted again. The ratoons mature early. It is cheaper as it does not involve any extra inputs. o Disadvantages The productivity decreases with each successive ratoon; hence, after 2-3 ratoons, new setts are planted. The yield is of thinner canes with lower sucrose content. There is more risk of pests and diseases. Temper ature Climatic conditions Soil Methods of cultivation Distribution Problems By seeds This method has become obsolete. It is practised only in some states where yield is not high. Harvesting: The cane is harvested before flowers appear. It is ready for harvesting when the leaves at the lower stem go yellow. The crop is cut by hand sing a long, curved knife, as near as possible to the ground because the sucrose content is concentrated at the base of the stem. Processing: The canes must be taken quickly to the mills for processing within 24 hours of cutting, otherwise, the sucrose content falls. This, along with saving in transportation costs, is the reason why the sugar mills are located near the fields. In the mills, the cane is crushed between rollers and then boiled with lime to remove impurities. The sugarcane juice crystallises and forms with raw brown sugar. About 2-3rds of the sugarcane produced in the country is used by the gur and khandsari industries and only about 1/3rd for sugar. There are three main areas of sugarcane production in India. Sutlej-Ganga plain from Punjab to Bihar It has the largest sugarcane-growing tract, because of o the fertile alluvium which renews every year; o sufficiently high temperatures and rainfall; and o availability of high water-table, enabling easy irrigation. U.P. is the largest producer. Black soil area from Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu In South India, the area under sugarcane cultivation is less; however, it has higher yield-per-hectare, longer harvesting season and better quality. o This is because of the favourable maritime climate, free from the effects of summer loo and winter frost, sufficient irrigation and modern farming techniques. o The sugarcane here faces stiff competition from other cash crops like cotton and groundnut. Plus, the winter rainfall along the Tamil Nadu coast is not beneficial for the crop. Maharashtra is the second largest producer. Tamil Nadu is the largest producer in south India. Coastal A.P. and the Krishna valley. It is a soil-exhausting crop; hence, the cost of fertilisers increases the cost of production. The farms are far from the mills; delay of more than 24 hours between harvesting and crushing reduces the sucrose content. This adds to the cost of production. It is an annual crop; hence, farmers are restricted from cultivating any other crop. It requires high input of irrigation. The price is fixed by the government which is most of the times not profitable for the farmers. Role of Government in solving problems Co-operative societies have been set-up. Rural credit banks provide loans to farmers at low interest rates for buying necessary equipment. Better irrigation means are developed to provide regular water. Oilseeds. - - Oilseeds constitute a very important part of the cash crops. Vegetable oils extracted from oilseeds like groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, sunflower and soyabean are used as cooking medium in India. Some areas of central India also consume linseed oil, it is classified as nonedible. Oils are also used as industrial raw materials in the manufacture of paints, soaps, cosmetics, medicines, lubricants, etc. Oilcake, the residue left after extraction of oil, serves as good animal fodder and good manure. Groundnut, peanut or monkey nut (Odisha and southern states Rabi, rest of India Kharif): Temperature 20 C-25 C Climatic Rainfall 50-100cm. conditions Dry weather is required at the time of ripening. Soil Sandy loams; red, yellow and well-drained black soils. Sowing: June-July (Tamil Nadu February-March). o After ploughing, seeds are sown by broadcasting or dibbling. Methods of o After maturing, flowers appear. cultivation o After self-pollination, the flower stalks bend downwards and bury the fruit, where it matures. o It takes 4-5 months to be ready for harvest. Harvesting: November-December (Tamil Nadu June-July). Gujarat is the largest producer; others are Telangana, Tamil Distribution Nadu, etc. - Mustard (Rabi): Temperature 10 C-20 C Climatic conditions Rainfall 25-40cm. Soil Slightly heavier soils; loams o It is grown as a mixed crop with wheat, gram, barley, but harvested about 1-2 weeks before the main crop. Methods of o Its growing period is 4-5 months. cultivation o The seeds are separated by getting them trampled under the bullocks feet. Distribution U.P. is the largest producer; others are Rajasthan, Punjab, etc. - Soyabean (Kharif): Temperature Climatic conditions Rainfall 13 C-24 C 40-60cm. Soil Friable, loamy, acidic soil o It needs 3-4 irrigations during its growth. Methods of o Before sowing, the seeds are covered with gur (jaggery) and cultivation rhizobium. o It is sown in June and harvested in October. M.P. is the largest producer; others are Rajasthan, Distribution Maharashtra, etc. Cotton. Season Varieties Climatic conditions Soil Methods of cultivation The time of sowing (and harvesting) depends on the climatic conditions of the area. In Punjab and Haryana, it is a rabi crop. In most parts, including peninsular India, it is a kharif crop. In Tamil Nadu, it is both a rabi and a kharif crop. Variety Staple length Superior long staple >27 mm Long staple 24.5-26 mm Superior medium staple 20-24 mm Medium staple 20-21.5 mm Short staple <19 mm July-September: 21 C 30 C. Temperature October: >26 C; helps ripening and bursting of cotton bolls under the sunny skies. 50-75cm. Rainfall Rainfall during boll-opening and harvesting is harmful as it makes them vulnerable to pests and diseases. It needs a long growing period of at least 200 frost-free days to mature. Well-drained clayey soil containing lime and phosphates. Deep and medium black soils of the Deccan and Malwa plateaus and Gujarat are ideal. Also grown on alluvial soils of the Great Plains and red and laterite soils of the Peninsular regions. Cotton is a soil-exhausting crop; hence, regular application of fertilisers is necessary. Sowing: The soil is tilled and manured before seeds are sown by broadcasting or drilling. It is mostly rotated along with maize, jowar, groundnut. It takes 6-8 months to mature. Harvesting: The crop is harvested in October, when the bolls ripen into white, fluffy and shiny bolls of fibre. Cotton is harvested in 3-4 pickings as the bolls mature; yield decreases with successive pickings. Processing: After picking, it is ginned. Ginning is the process in which the cotton fibres or lint are separated from the cotton seeds and the short fibres or lints which adhere to them. Distribution Problems o The cotton first goes through dryers to reduce moisture and then through cleaning equipment to remove foreign matter. o It is air-conveyed to gin stands where its circular saws pull the lint through closely-spaced ribs that prevent the seed from passing through. o The lint is removed from the saw teeth by brushes and then baled for transport to manufacturing regions. It is washed and combed to form a rope-like mass called silver. The silver is fed to the spindles and spun to make cotton yarn. The seeds are crushed to yield oil; the residue is used as fodder. The chief cotton-growing areas are: o NW Deccan on the fertile black soils; o Central and southern Deccan Karnataka and Tamil Nadu; o Upper Ganges valley mostly with irrigation. The top producers are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana, A.P. and Karnataka. Cultivating cotton requires a large sum of investment. Farmers face security threats due to the losses incurred. Higher scale of input is required in terms of o Labour (cotton is labour-intensive); o Fertilisers (cotton is soil-exhausting; prices have increased manifold); and o Power (electricity is expensive). Jute (Kharif). Due to the versatile nature of its colour and the fact that it brings huge revenue to the government. Nicknames Brown paper of Because it is used for packing many commodities wholesale trade like rice, wheat, sugar, cement and cotton bales. An inferior substitute for jute. Its fibre is coarser and less strong than jute. Mesta It can withstand drought conditions; hence, it can be grown where jute cannot. It is mainly grown in Assam, Bihar, Odisha and Kerala. Variety Species Characteristic Corchorus It is hardy, highly adaptable and grows White jute Varieties capsularis well on both lowlands and uplands. Corchorus It is grown only on uplands as it is averse Tossa jute olitorius to flodding. Temperature 24 C 35 C Humidity 90% Climatic >150cm conditions Rainfall Occasional showers at intervals of about a week are the most beneficial. Light sandy or clayey loams are suitable. Jute grows best on new alluvial soil, replenished annually by the Soil flood waters. This is necessary as jute is soil-exhausting. The loam helps to hold the plant nutrients, preventing leaching. Golden fibre The clayey soil gives the heaviest yield but the fibres are sticky. The sandy soil gives coarse fibres. Sowing: On thoroughly-prepared fields in February on lowlands and in March-June on uplands, by drilling, dibbling or broadcasting. Harvesting: Ready as soon as flowering starts. It is harvested during July-September, 8-10 months after sowing, by manually pulling up the stem. Relatively higher yields are obtained if it was sown in winter. Processing: The plants are dried and stripped of unwanted leaves. Methods of cultivation They are tied in bundles and are submerged into water for 20 to 25 days and allowed to rot, for retting. o Retting is a microbiological process in which the outer bark softens, facilitating the early removability of the fibre within. o Chemical additives help retting. o This process is now done in special tanks. The fleshy part of the stem is decomposed and the fibres are scraped to remove any remaining pieces of the vegetable matter. It is then rinsed, washed, sun-dried, and pressed into bales. West Bengal has the largest area under jute and is also the largest producer. The hot damp climate here is best-suited for jute. Alluvial loams of the deltaic regions are very beneficial. Distribution Plenty of fresh soft water available from the tributaries and distributaries of Ganga, for retting. Cheap and abundant labour force is available. Other states are Assam, Bihar, Odisha, U.P., etc. Tea. 24 C-30 C Temperature High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog are good for rapid development of leaves. >150cm, well-distributed throughout the year. Climatic conditions Rainfall 125-375cm in Assam 250-500cm in West Bengal Tea is a shade-loving plant and develops more vigorously when planted along with shady trees. Well-drained, deep friable loams; forest land rich in humus. Virgin forest soils rich in humus and iron are best-suited. Soil The soil should be gently rolled to avoid waterlogging, which is harmful for tree bushes. Sowing: Tea gardens are set-up on cleared hill slopes where shade trees are raised in advance, along with belts of silver oak which serve as Methods of wind barriers. cultivation o The crops cannot stand waterlogging; hence, the slopes are suitable as they protect the crop from stagnant water during the rains. o The high altitude provides the required climatic conditions. o Cool air blowing across the mountains adds to its flavour. Two sowing methods are mainly in use o Transplantation from seeds High-quality seeds are sown in germination beds in well-prepared nurseries. The saplings are transplanted within a year in the proposed tea gardens at a distance of 1m on all sides. o Clonal planting The method of growing tea shrubs in nurseries from cuttings of high-yielding varieties of a mother tea plant (called clones) is called clonal planting. When such saplings are 20cm high, they are transplanted in the main tea garden. This method ensures high quality and better yield as the new plant has all the qualities of the mother plant. Harvesting: After 2 years, pruning of the bush starts. o Periodic pruning maintains the height (< 1m) and diameter of the plant to facilitate hand-plucking. o It helps in growing new shoots with softer leaves. o It also helps in maintaining the shape of the bush. The leaves are ready for plucking in 3-4 years. It is a skilful job, requiring patience and judgement. It is done by women who are better pickers and can be employed at relatively cheaper rates. o At lower elevations, tea is picked every 10 days during the growing season and at higher altitudes, every 15 days. o Picking goes on all the time from early April of mid-November. o There are around 16-20 pickings a year. Two tender leaves and a bud or shoot are usually plucked from each stem, which give the finest tea. This is called fine plucking. The average lifespan of a tea shrub is 50 years. Processing: Each of the four types of tea is processed differently. Black tea is typical in India and Sri Lanka, and is taken with milk and sugar. Its processing involves the following. o Withering The leaves are first withered or sun-dried for a day or two to extract moisture. o Rolling They are then rolled mechanically between steel rollers to break the leaf cells and expose the thine juice. The leaves are dried again or baked lightly over charcoal fires until they turn reddish brown. o Fermentation The leaves are allowed to ferment, during which the tannic acid is partly oxidised and the leaves turn copper-red. o Drying / Fixing Further fermentation is checked by roasting and drying the leaves over a fire or in an oven at a very high temperature, until they turn black. o Sorting They are sorted out and branded in various grades, denoting the size of leaves. o Blending Expert blenders further blend the various grades of tea to give it a unique aroma and texture, in order to make many proprietary brands. Distribution o Packing The leaves are packed in plywood chests with a lining of aluminium foil and sent to the nearest port for export. Green tea is typical in China and the Far East. It is a stronger stimulant due to its high tannic acid content, and is usually taken without milk or sugar. The leaves are not sun-dried but are heated immediately by roasting them over hot iron pans and later rolled. They are not fermented, and they remain green even when they are dried, graded and packed. Oolong tea is a high-grade semi-fermented tea, greenish-brown in colour, prepared by partially drying and fermenting the leaves. Much of it is shipped to the US. Brick tea is normally consumed in Russia and Tibet. In it, the inferior and coarser leaves, stems and dust are compressed into rectangular blocks. Assam is the largest producer. The main areas are the Brahmaputra valley and the Surma valley. West Bengal is the second largest producer. The main areas sare the Duars and the Darjeeling hills. Other states are Tamil Nadu, Kerala, etc. Coffee. o It is grown in the lower elevation districts of south India, where arabica does not thrive well. o It is hardier, can survive even in arid conditions and is disease-resistant, but yields poorer quality coffee. o It is a hardy and disease-resistant species, suited to lowland conditions. Coffee Varieties o It gives heavy yields of moderate quality coffee. liberica o Along with robusta, liberica is particularly suitable for making instant coffee and hence are gaining importance. o It is the finest coffee but is very delicate and susceptible Coffee to diseases. arabica o It is grown on slopes ranging from 750-1500m high. o It produces superior quality beans. 15 C-28 C Temperature It cannot bear frost, high temperatures and snowfall. Climatic It is susceptible to harm from direct sun rays. conditions Rainfall 150-200cm It needs a fairly long spell of dry weather for the beans to ripen. Rich, well-drained, friable, loamy soil; black and laterite soil of the Soil Deccan plateau are the best-suited. Sowing: Coffee is propagated from seeds or cuttings in a nursery, and after a few months, the saplings are transplanted to the field. Methods of Coffee is grown on terraced slopes so that water does not stagnate. cultivation The plants are pruned (1.5-2.5m) annually to ease picking and to ensure heavy bearing of coffee berries. It grows under shady trees such as silver oak and jackfruit, which are planted 1 year before planting coffee. Coffee robusta Distribution Other trees like orange, cardamom and pepper vines are also interplanted to generate extra income. Harvesting It may begin in the 3rd year after planting, but is usually done in the 4th or 5th year. Picking is done by hand by removing ripe berries from the stalk. Each berry contains two seeds called coffee beans which are processed to make coffee powder. Processing Two methods. In the Wet Parchment method, the fruit covering of the beans is removed before they are dried, pulped, fermented, washed and dried. After this, the beans are ready to use. In the Dry Parchment / Native method; o The harvested cherries are sorted and cleaned, to separate the unripe, overripe and damaged cherries and to remove dirt, twigs, leaves, etc. o The cherries are sun-dried. o The beans are then fermented by sun-drying for a week. o After drying, machines peel off two layers of inner husks. o They are sorted according to size and quality and then packed in sacks for use. o The beans are roasted at about 99 C and then ground into powder. Roasting gives it brown colour, aroma and taste. Traditional coffee-producing areas: Karnataka Coorg and Chikmaglur. Kerala Kozhikode, Palakkad, etc. Tamil Nadu Nilgiris district, etc. Non-traditional areas: A.P., Odisha, seven sister states etc.
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