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ICSE Class X Notes 2025 : Mathematics (Dr martheophilus, Pune)

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FALGUNI MISS 01. DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES (265) (2024 2025). 01. FORCE. (A) MOMENT OF A FORCE AND EQULIBRIUM. 1. Anticlockwise moments: If turning effect is anticlockwise, the moment of force is called anticlockwise moment and is positive. 2. Clockwise moments: If turning effect is clockwise, the moment of force is called clockwise moment and is negative. 3. Couple: Two equal and opposite parallel forces not acting along the same line, forms a couple. 4. Dynamic equilibrium: Under the influence of the several forces, if a body remains in the same state of motion, the body is said to be in dynamic equilibrium. 5. Equilibrium: Equilibrium is the state of a body, when a number of forces acting on it produces no change in its state of rest or of motion. 6. Linear or translational motion: Linear or translational motion is the motion when a force acts on a free to move stationary rigid body and the body starts moving in a straight path in the direction of force. 7. Moment (Turning effect) of a Force or Torque: Moment of a Force or Torque is the turning effect of force acting on a body about its axis. 8. Moment of couple: Moment of couple is equal to the product of either force and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of both the forces. 9. Principle of Moments: According to the principle of moments, If the algebraic sum of all moments of forces, acting on the body, about an axis of rotation is zero, then the body is in equilibrium. Thus, Sum of anticlockwise moments = Sum of clockwise moments. 10.Rotational motion: Rotational motion is the motion when a force acts at a suitable point on a pivoted body and the body begins to rotate about its axis, producing a turning effect of the force. 11.Static equilibrium: When a body remains in a state of rest under the influence of number of forces, the body is in static equilibrium. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 1 FALGUNI MISS (B). CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 12.Center of gravity: Center of gravity of a body is the point about which the algebraic sum of moments of weights of all the particles constituting the body is equal to zero. (C) UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION. 13.Centrifugal force: Force acting away from the centre of the circular path is called centrifugal force. 14.Centripetal force: Centripetal force is the force acting on a body moving in a circular path, in a direction which is always towards the centre of the circular path. 15.Uniform circular motion: When a particle moves in a circular path with a constant speed, its motion is said to be the uniform circular motion. 02. WORK, ENERGY & POWER. (A) WORK, ENERGY AND POWER, THEIR MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS. 16.1 erg of work: 1 erg of work is said to be done when a force of 1 dyne displaces a body through a distance of 1 cm in the same direction. 17.1 joule of work: 1 joule of work is said to be done when a force of 1 newton displaces a body through a distance of 1 meter in the same direction. 18.1 watt: If 1 joule of work is done in 1 second, the power spent is said to be 1 watt. 19.Calorie: 1 calorie is the heat energy required in raising the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5 to 15.5 . 20.Electron volt: 1 eV is the energy gained by an electron when it accelerates through a potential difference of 1 volt. 21.Energy: Energy of a body is its capacity to do work. 22.Horse power: Horse power is a unit of power, largely used in mechanical engineering. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 2 FALGUNI MISS 23.Kilowatt hour: One kilowatt hour is the energy spent / work done by a source of power 1 kW in 1 h. 24.Power: Power is the rate of doing work. 25.Watt hour: One-watt hour is the energy spent / work done by a source of power 1 W in 1 h. 26.Work: Work is said to be done only when the force applied on a body produces displacement of the body. (B) DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY. 27.Chemical or fuel energy: Chemical energy is the energy possessed by fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. 28.Degraded energy: Degraded energy is the energy converted to undesirable form or is lost to the environment during the desired transformation from one form to the other. 29.Dissipation of energy: Dissipation of energy is the conversion of energy to the undesirable/non-useful form. 30.Elastic potential energy: The potential energy possessed by a body in the deformed state due to change in its configuration, is called the elastic potential energy. 31.Electrical energy: Electrical energy is the energy derived from electric potential energy converted to kinetic energy of the charged particles. 32.Geothermal energy: Geo thermal energy is the energy released during nuclear disintegrations in the interior of the earth, which gets stored deep inside the earth. 33.Gravitational potential energy: Gravitational potential energy is the potential energy possessed by a body due to its position relative to the centre of earth. 34.Heat energy: Heat energy is the energy released on burning coal, oil, wood or gas. 35.Hydro energy: Hydro energy is the energy possessed by fast moving water. 36.Kinetic Energy: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its state of motion is called the kinetic energy. 37.Light energy: It is the form of energy in presence of which other objects are seen is called light energy. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 3 FALGUNI MISS 38.Magnetic energy: Magnetic energy is the energy possessed by a magnet due to which it can attract iron filings. 39.Mechanical energy: Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its state of rest or motion. 40.Nuclear energy: Nuclear (or atomic) energy is the energy released during the processes of nuclear fission and fusion, due to loss in their mass. 41.Potential Energy: Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body at rest by virtue of its specific position or changed configuration. 42.Rotational kinetic energy: Rotational kinetic energy is the kinetic energy of the body due to rotational motion. 43.Rotational motion: If a body rotates about its axis, the motion is called rotational motion. 44.Solar energy: Solar energy is the energy radiated by the sun. 45.Sound energy: Sound energy is the energy possessed by a vibrating body. 46.Translational kinetic energy: Translational kinetic energy is the kinetic energy of the body due to motion in a straight line. 47.Translational motion: The motion of a body in a straight-line path is called translational motion. 48.Vibrational kinetic energy: Vibrational kinetic energy is the kinetic energy of the body due to vibrational motion. 49.Vibrational motion: If a body moves to and fro about its mean position, the motion is called vibrational motion. 50.Wind energy: Wind energy is the energy possessed by the fast-moving air. 51.Work Energy Theorem: According to the work energy theorem the work done by a force on a moving body/object is equal to the increase in its kinetic energy. (C) CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. 52.Conservation of mechanical energy (Fundamental Principle of nature): According to the law of conservation of mechanical energy, whenever there is an interchange between the potential energy and the kinetic energy, the total mechanical energy remains constant. 53.Principle of conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it only changes from one form to another. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 4 FALGUNI MISS 03. MACHINES. (A) MACHINES, TECHNICAL TERMS AND LEVERS. 54.Actual machine / Practical machine: Actual machine is a machine in which some of the energy is lost in overcoming the force of friction between the moving parts of a machine. 55.Class Lever: Class I lever is a lever in which the fulcrum F is in between the effort E and load L. 56.Class Lever: Class II lever is a lever in which the load L is in between the effort E and the fulcrum F. 57.Class Lever: Class III lever is a lever in which the effort E is in between the fulcrum F and the load L. 58.Efficiency ( ): Efficiency is the ratio of the useful work done by a machine on the load to the useful work done by the effort on the machine. OR Efficiency is the ratio of work output to the work input. 59.Effort point: Effort point is the point at which energy is supplied to a machine, by applying effort. 60.Effort: Effort [E] is the force applied on the machine to overcome the load. 61.Ideal Machine: Ideal machine is that in which there is no dissipation of energy in any manner, the work output is equal to the work input, thus its is 100%. 62.Law of lever: The mechanical advantage of a lever is equal to the ratio of the length of its effort arm to the length of its load arm. 63.Levers: Lever is a rigid, straight or a bent bar, which is capable of turning about a fixed axis. 64.Load point: Load point is the point where the energy is obtained by overcoming the load. 65.Load: Load [L] is the resistive or opposing force to overcome by a machine. 66.Machines: Machine is a device by which we can either overcome a large resistive force/load by applying a small force/effort at a convenient point in a desired direction or by which we can obtain a gain in speed. 67.Mechanical advantage (M.A.): Mechanical advantage (M.A.) is the ratio of the load to the effort. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 5 FALGUNI MISS 68.Velocity ratio (V.R.): Velocity ratio is the ratio of the velocity of effort to the velocity of load. OR Velocity ratio is the ratio of displacement of effort to the displacement of load. 69.Work input: Work input is the work done by the effort on a machine. 70.Work output: Work output is the work done by the machine on the load. (B) PULLEY. 71.Block and tackle system: Block and tackle system consists of upper block having several fixed pulleys fixed to a rigid support and a movable lower block having several fixed pulleys. 72.Block: A single pulley or a combination of two or more pulleys fixed in a frame is called a block. 73.Pulley: A wheel with a grooved rim around which a cord passes is a pulley. 74.Single fixed pulley: Single fixed pulley is a pulley, which has a fixed position of its axis of rotation. 75.Single movable pulley: A pulley, whose axis of rotation is not fixed in a position, is called a movable pulley. 76.Tackle: A string or a rope or a chain that winds around a pulley in different blocks is known as tackle. 04. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT PLANE SURFACES. (A) REFRACTION, LAW OF REFRACTION AND REFRACTIVE INDEX. 77.Refraction: Refraction of light is a surface phenomenon, in which there is a change in direction of the path of light, when it passes from one transparent medium to another transparent medium. 78.Snell s law: The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant for the pair of given media. This constant is called the refractive index of second medium with respect to the first medium. 79.Refractive index / Refractive index of a medium: The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence in first optical medium to the sine of angle of refraction in the second optical medium is the refractive index of second optical medium with respect to the first optical medium. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 6 FALGUNI MISS 80.Absolute refractive index: Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum (or air) to the speed of light in that medium. 81.Lateral displacement: Lateral displacement of light is the perpendicular distance by which the light ray gets displaced after refraction through a glass slab. (B) REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM. 82.Prism: Prism is a transparent refractive medium bounded by five plane surfaces inclined at some angles, with a triangular cross section. 83.Angle of deviation: Angle of deviation is the angle between the incident ray produced forward and the emergent ray produced backward, when light is refracted through a prism. 84.Refracting surfaces: Refracting surfaces of prism are the plane surfaces through which the light passes through the prism. 85.Angle of prism: Angle of prism is the angle between the two refracting surfaces of the prism. 86.Principle section: Principle section of the prism is the section of the prism perpendicular to the refractive edge in a prism. 87.Refractive edge: Refractive edge of the prism is the line of intersection of the two refracting surfaces in a prism. (C) SIMPLE APPLICATIONS OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT. NO DEFINITION (D) CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION. 88.Critical Angle (C): Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium, whose corresponding angle of refraction in the rarer medium is 90 . 89.Right isosceles prism: Right isosceles prism is a prism having an angle of 90 between its two refracting surfaces and other two angles each equal to 45 . Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 7 FALGUNI MISS 90.Total Internal Reflection: Total internal reflection is a phenomenon in which, a ray of light when travelling from a denser medium to a rarer medium with an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle for a pair of media, is totally reflected back into the denser medium. 91.Total reflecting prism: Total reflecting prism is a prism in which, light suffers total internal reflection inside it, when incident normally on any of its faces. 05. REFRACTION THROUGH A LENS. (A) LENS & REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH LENS. 92.Lens: Lens is a transparent refracting medium bounded by one or two spherical surfaces. 93.Centre of curvature: Centre of the sphere, which forms the lens surface, is called the centre of curvature of that surface of the lens. 94.Radius of curvature: Radius of the sphere, which forms lens surface, is called the radius of curvature of that surface of the lens. 95.Principal axis: Principal axis is the line joining the centers of curvature of the two surfaces of the lens. 96.Optical centre: Optical centre is a point on the principal axis of the lens such that an incident ray of light emerges parallel to its direction of incidence after passing through this point. 97.Optical centre of thin lens: Optical centre of a thin lens is the point on the principal axis of a lens, such that an incident ray of light, passes undeviated through it. 98.First focal point for a concave lens: First focal point for a concave lens is a point F1 on the principal axis of the lens such that the incident ray of light appears to meet at it, after refraction and becomes parallel to the principal axis of the lens. 99.First focal point for a convex lens: First focal point for a convex lens is a point F1 on the principal axis of the lens such that the rays of light starting from it or passing through it, after refraction, becomes parallel to the principal axis of the lens. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 8 FALGUNI MISS 100. Second focal point for a concave lens: Second focal point for a concave lens is a point F2 on the principal axis of the lens such that the ray of light incident parallel to the principal axis, after refraction, appears to diverge from this point. 101. Second focal point for a convex lens: Second focal point for a convex lens is a point F2 on the principal axis of the lens such that the ray of light incident parallel to the principal axis, after refraction, passes through it. 102. First focal length (f1): First focal length is the distance from the optical centre of the lens to its first focal point F1. 103. First focal plane: First focal plane is a plane passing through the first focal point and is normal to the principal axis of the lens. 104. Second focal length (f2): Second focal length is the distance from the optical centre of the lens to its second focal point F2. 105. Second focal plane: Second focal plane is a plane passing through the second focal point and is normal to the principal axis of the lens. (B) FORMATION OF IMAGE BY A LENS. 106. Real image: Real image is an image obtained on a screen and formed due to intersection of refracted rays. 107. Virtual image: Virtual image is an image which cannot be obtained on a screen and is formed when the refracted rays appears to meet, when produced backward. (C) SIGN CONVENTION AND LENS FORMULA. 108. Lens Formula: Lens formula is the equation relating to the distance of object (u), distance of image (v) and focal length (f) of a lens. 109. Linear Magnification: Linear magnification is the ratio of length of image (I) perpendicular to the principal axis, to the length of object (O). 110. Power of Lens: Power of a lens is a measure of deviation produced by it in the path of rays refracted through it. (D) MAGNIFYING GLASS AND APPLICATION OF LENSES. 111. Magnifying Glass: Magnifying glass is a convex lens of short focal length fitted in a steel (or plastic) frame provided with a handle. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 9 FALGUNI MISS 112. Magnifying power: Magnifying power is one more than the ratio of least distance of distinct vision (D) = 25 cm to the focal length of the lens. m=1+ . 113. Principle of a magnifying glass or simple microscope: The principle of a simple microscope (or magnifying glass or reading glass) is when an object is placed between the optical centre and the focus of a convex lens, the image obtained is erect, virtual and magnified and formed behind the object and on the same side. 06. SPECTRUM. (A) DEVIATION, DISPERSION AND SPECTRUM. 114. Dispersion: Dispersion is the phenomenon of white light splitting into its constituent colors. 115. Spectrum: Spectrum is the colour band obtained on a screen on passing a white light through a prism. (B) ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM AND ITS BROAD CLASSIFICATION. 116. Visible spectrum: Visible spectrum is the part of the spectrum, which lies between the red and the violet region. 117. Infrared spectrum/radiation: Infrared spectrum is the portion of electromagnetic spectrum just beyond the red end. 118. Invisible spectrum: Invisible spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum beyond red and violet ends. 119. Ultraviolet spectrum/radiation: Ultraviolet spectrum is the portion of electromagnetic spectrum just before the violet end. (C) SCATTERING OF LIGHT AND ITS APPLICATIONS. 120. Scattering of light: Scattering of light is the process of absorption and reemission of light energy. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 10 FALGUNI MISS 07. SOUND . (A) REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES AND ECHOES. 121. Amplitude: Amplitude (a) is the maximum displacement of a particle in the given medium on either side of its mean position. 122. Echo: Echo is the sound heard distinctly after reflection from a distant rigid obstacle (like cliff, wall of a building, etc.) after the original sound has ceased. 123. Elastic or Mechanical waves: Elastic or Mechanical waves are waves which travel in the medium through the vibrations of the medium particles about their mean position. 124. Electromagnetic waves: Electromagnetic waves are waves formed by the periodic vibrations of the mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields in a plane normal to the direction of wave propagation. 125. Frequency: Frequency (f) is the number of vibrations made by the particle of the medium in one second. 126. Infrasonic vibrations: Infrasonic vibrations are sound vibrations having frequency below 20 Hz. 127. Longitudinal waves: Longitudinal waves are the vibrations of the medium particles along the direction of propagation of the wave, forming alternate compressions and rarefactions in a medium. 128. Radar: Radar is a system for detecting obstacles, speed, distances etc. in sky and space by echo method using electromagnetic radiation. 129. Range of audibility: Range of audibility is the range of frequency of vibrations between 20Hz to 20,000 Hz, perceptible by human ear. 130. Reflection of sound waves: Reflection of sound waves is the returning back of sound wave in the same medium after striking a surface like wall, metal sheet, wood etc. 131. Reverberations: Reverberations is the prolonged effect of sound produced due to repeated reflections at the reflecting surface. 132. Sonar: Sonar is a system for detecting obstacles under water by echo method using ultrasonic sound waves. 133. Sound ranging or echo depth sounding: Sound ranging or echo depth sounding is the process of detecting obstacles by echo method. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 11 FALGUNI MISS 134. Time period: Time period (T) is the time taken by the particle in a medium to complete one vibration. 135. Transverse Waves: Transverse waves are the vibrations of the medium particles which are normal to the direction of propagation, forming alternate crests and troughs in a medium. 136. Ultrasonic vibrations: Ultrasonic vibrations are the sound vibrations having frequency above 20,000 Hz. 137. Wave Velocity: Wave velocity (V) is the distance travelled by the wave in one second. 138. Wavelength: Wavelength ( ) is the distance travelled by consecutive crest and a trough of a wave in one time period of vibration of the particle in a medium. (B) NATURAL, DAMPED AND FORCED VIBRATIONS; RESONANCE. 139. Damped vibrations: Damped Vibrations are periodic vibrations of a body of decreasing amplitude in presence of a resistive force. 140. Driving force: Driving force is an externally applied periodic force. 141. Forced vibrations: Forced Vibrations are vibrations of a body which take place under the influence of an external periodic force acting on it. 142. Free or natural frequency: The frequency of the freely vibrating body is called its free or natural frequency of the body. 143. Free or natural period: The time period of the freely vibrating body is called its free or natural period of the body. 144. Free or natural vibrations: Natural vibrations are periodic vibrations of a body of constant amplitude in the absence of any external force on it. 145. Resonance: Resonance is a phenomenon, in which, the frequency of an externally applied periodic force on a body is equal to the natural frequency of another vibrating body and it vibrates with an increased amplitude. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 12 FALGUNI MISS (C) CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND AND THEIR SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE NATURE. 146. 1dB: 1 dB is defined as the increase in the level of loudness when the intensity of sound increases by 26%. 147. Intensity: Intensity at any point in the medium is the amount of sound energy passing per second normally through a unit area at that point. 148. Loudness: Loudness is the property by virtue of which a loud sound can be distinguished from a faint one, both having the same pitch and quality. 149. Music: Music is a pleasant, continuous and uniform sound produced by regular and periodic vibrations. 150. Noise pollution: Noise Pollution is the disturbance caused in the environment due to undesirable loud and harsh sound from various sources like loudspeaker, siren, vehicles etc. of level above 120 dB. 151. Noise: Noise is unpleasant, discontinuous and non-uniform sound produced by an irregular succession of disturbances. 152. Pitch or shrillness: Pitch is the characteristic of sound by which an acute or shrill note can be distinguished from a grave or flat note of equal loudness. 153. Principal or fundamental vibration: The vibration of the least frequency and maximum amplitude is called the principal or fundamental vibration. 154. Quality (or timbre) and wave form: Quality or timbre of a sound is that characteristic which distinguishes the two sounds of the same loudness and same pitch, but emitted by two different instruments. 155. Subsidiary or secondary vibrations: The vibrations of frequency integer multiples of it, are called the subsidiary or secondary vibrations. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 13 FALGUNI MISS 08. CURRENT ELECTRICITY. (A) CONCEPT OF CHARGE, CURRENT, POTENTIAL, POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE, AND RESISTANCE; OHM S LAW. 156. 1 ampere: a. 1 ampere current is when the rate of flow of charge through a conductor is 1 coulomb per second. OR b. 1 ampere current is when, 6.25 1018 electrons pass through a conductor per second. 157. 1 volt: The potential difference between two points is said to be 1 volt when the amount of work done in moving one coulomb charge from 1 point to another is 1 joule. 158. Conductance: The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance. 159. Conductivity: The reciprocal of resistivity is called the conductivity. 160. Current: Current is the rate of flow of charge. 161. Dynamic resistance: The slope / is called the dynamic resistance. 162. Electric potential: Electric potential is the electrical state of a conductor which determines the direction of flow of charge when the two conductors are either kept in contact or joined by a metallic wire. 163. Non Ohmic / Non linear resistors: The conductors which do not obey Ohm s law are called the non-ohmic resistors or non-linear resistors. 164. Ohm s Law (V = IR): According to Ohm s law, the current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends provided that the physical conditions (like temperature) remains constant. 165. Ohmic / Linear resistors: The conductors which obey Ohm s law are called the Ohmic resistors or linear resistors. 166. One Ohm: The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm when 1 ampere current flows through at a potential difference of 1 volt across it. 167. Potential difference (p.d.): The potential difference between two points is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to the other. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 14 FALGUNI MISS 168. Potential: The potential at a point is defined as the amount of work done per unit charge in bringing a unit positive test charge from infinity to a point. 169. Resistance: The obstruction offered to the flow of current by the wire or a conductor is called its resistance. 170. Specific Resistance or Resistivity: Specific resistance of a material is the resistance of the wire of particular material having unit length and unit area of cross section. 171. Superconductivity: The property of having zero resistance at a low temperature is called superconductivity. 172. Superconductor: Superconductor is a substance of zero resistance at very low temperature. 173. Test charge: Test charge is a charge of known small value that does not disturbs other charges by its presence. (B) ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE, TERMINAL VOLTAGE AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL; COMBINATION OF RESISTORS. 174. Electric cell: Electric cell is a device in which a constant difference in potential is maintained between the two conductors (electrodes or terminals) by a chemical reaction. 175. Electro-motive force (e.m.f.): E.m.f. of a cell is the work done or energy spent per unit charge in taking a unit positive charge around the complete circuit (outside and inside) of the cell. 176. Internal resistance of a cell: Internal resistance of cell is the resistance offered by the electrolyte inside the cell, to the flow of current in the cell. 177. Terminal Voltage: The work done per unit charge in carrying a unit positive test charge around the circuit connected across the terminals (outside) of the cell is termed as the terminal voltage of a cell. 178. Voltage drop in a cell: Voltage drop in the cell is the work done in carrying a unit positive charge through the electrolyte (inside) of the cell. (C) ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER. 179. Electrical power: Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is supplied by the source. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 15 FALGUNI MISS 180. Joule s law of heating: Joule s law of heating is the relation obtained to show the amount of heat produced is directly proportional to square of current, resistance and time. 181. One kilo-watt hour: One kilo-watt hour (kWh) is the electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance of power 1kW when used for 1 hour. 182. One-watt hour: One-watt hour is the electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance of power 1 watt when used for 1 hour. 183. Power: Power is the rate of doing work. 09. HOUSEHOLD CIRCUITS. (A) TRANSMISSION OF POWER AND HOUSE WIRING. 184. Company fuse or pole fuse: Company fuse or pole fuse is a fuse of high rating (= 50 A) connected in the live wire at the pole or just before connecting the electric line to the meter in the house. 185. House wiring (Ring system): Ring system is the system of house wiring in which, a wire from the main fuse box, runs around each room of the house connecting every appliance separately with the live wire of the ring, through a separate fuse and separate switch and then returns to the distribution box again. 186. Local earthing: Local earthing is a process of connecting all appliances of a household to the earth, near the kWh meter, in a building/house. (B) SOME ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF HOUSE WIRING SYSTEM. 187. Current rating of a fuse: A fuse wire permits a definite limit of current in the circuit, this limit is called the current rating of the fuse. 188. Double pole switch: Double pole switch is an on off device which operates by disconnecting the circuit/appliance from both the live and neutral wires simultaneously. 189. Fuse: Fuse is a safety device which limits the current in an electric circuit so as to safeguard the circuit and the appliances connected in that circuit. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 16 FALGUNI MISS 190. High tension wires: High tension wire is a special wire having low resistance and large surface area, used for transmission of heavy current at high voltage. 191. Local earthing: Local earthing is the process of connecting all appliances of a household to the earth, near the kWh meter, in a building/house. 192. Single pole switch: Single pole switch is an on-off device which operates by disconnecting the circuit/appliance only from the live wire. 193. Socket: Socket is a fixture to insert a plug in an electric circuit. 194. Switch: Switch is an on-off device which is connected in the live wire, to start or stop the current in a circuit / appliance. 195. Three-pin plug: Three-pin plug is a fixture provided in an appliance having three metallic (brass) pins in an ebonite case. 10. ELECTROMAGNETISM. (A) MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT. 196. Electric bell: Electric bell is a device which converts electrical energy to sound energy with the help of an electromagnet. 197. Electromagnet: Electromagnet is an artificial, temporary, strong magnet made by passing electric current in the coil wound around a soft iron core. 198. Neutral point: Neutral point is a point on a magnetic plane where the two magnetic fields are equal and opposite in direction. 199. Permanent magnet: Permanent magnet is an artificial magnet made from steel. 200. Right hand thumb rule: Right hand thumb rule is the rule that governs the direction of magnetic field by a current carrying conductor such that on holding the wire, the thumb points in the direction of flow of current, and the magnetic field lines are indicated by the direction of fingers encircling it. 201. Solenoid: Solenoid is a cylindrical coil formed by winding a conducting wire, having length of the coil greater than the diameter of the cylinder. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 17 FALGUNI MISS (B) FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN D.C. MOTOR. 202. Fleming s left hand rule: Fleming s left hand rule is the rule that governs the direction of force on a current carrying conductor, where the left hand forefinger indicates the direction of magnetic field, the central finger indicates the direction of current and the thumb indicates the direction of force on conductor (motion direction). 203. Lorentz force: Lorentz force is a force experienced when a charge moves (current passed) in a magnetic field, in a direction other than the direction of the magnetic field. 204. Principle of simple D.C. motor/Electric motor: An electric current passed in a conductor placed normally in a magnetic field, experiences a force due to which the conductor begins to move and mechanical energy (work) is obtained. The Fleming s left-hand rule is used to obtain the direction of force on the conductor. 205. Simple D.C. motor/Electric motor: Simple D. C. motor or electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into the mechanical energy. (C) ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ITS APPLICATIONS TO A.C. GENERATOR AND TRANSFORMER. 206. A.C. Generator: A.C. Generator is a device which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction and converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. 207. Electromagnetic induction: Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon in which, an e.m.f. is induced between the ends of the coil, if there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with the coil, and lasts as long as this flux changes. 208. Fleming s right hand rule: Fleming s right hand rule is the rule that governs the direction of induced current on the relative motion of conductor in a closed circuit, where the right hand forefinger indicates the direction of magnetic field, the thumb indicates the direction of motion of conductor and the central finger indicates the direction of induced current. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 18 FALGUNI MISS 209. Lenz s law: Lenz s law states that the direction of induced e.m.f. or current is such that it tends to oppose the cause which produces it. 210. Magnetic flux: The number of magnetic field lines linked with the conductor is called the magnetic flux linked with it. 211. Principle of a.c. generator: A coil rotated in a magnetic field changes the magnetic flux linked with the coil and induces an e.m.f. between the ends of the coil. The Fleming s Right hand rule is used to obtain the direction of induced current in the conductor. 212. Principle of transformer: A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction on two coils having different number of turns. 213. Step-down transformer: Step-down transformer is a transformer which is used to change a high alternating e.m.f. to a low alternating e.m.f. 214. Step-up transformer: Step-up transformer is a transformer which is used to change a low alternating e.m.f. to a high alternating e.m.f. 215. Transformer: Transformer is a device which can increase or decrease the magnitude of an alternating e.m.f. 216. Turn Ratio: Turn ratio is the ratio of number of turns Ns in secondary coil to the number of turns Np in primary coil (Ns / Np). 11. CALORIMETRY. (A) HEAT CAPACITY, SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AND IT S MEASUREMENT. 217. Calorimeter: Calorimeter is a cylindrical vessel which is used to measure the quantity of heat gained or lost between two bodies when in contact. 218. Calorimetry: Calorimetry is the process of measurement of the quantity of heat. 219. Heat energy: Heat energy is the internal energy of molecules of a substance that flows from a hot body to a cold body when they are in direct contact. 220. Internal energy: Internal energy of a substance is the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy of its molecules. 221. One calorie: One calorie is the heat energy required by 1 g of water to raise its temperature from 14.5 C to 15.5 C. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 19 FALGUNI MISS 222. One kilo-calorie: One kilo-calorie is the heat energy required by 1 kg of water to raise the temperature from 14.5 C to 15.5 C. 223. Principle of calorimetry / method of mixtures: It is based on the law of conservation of energy where in a fully insulated system, when a hot body is kept in contact with a cold body, heat energy passes from hot body to cold body, till temperature equilibrium is attained by both bodies (ie. Same temperature). 224. Specific heat capacity: Specific heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance through 1K or 1 C. 225. Temperature: Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body, which determines the direction of flow of heat between two bodies, kept in contact. 226. Thermal (or heat) capacity: Thermal/heat capacity of a body is the quantity of heat energy required to raise its temperature by 1 K or 1 C. (B) CHANGE OF PHASE (STATE) AND LATENT HEAT. 227. Boiling/Vaporization: Boiling or vaporization is the process in which a liquid phase changes to a vapor phase at a constant temperature by absorption of heat. 228. Boiling/Vaporization point: Boiling or vaporization point is the constant temperature at which a liquid phase changes to vapour phase. 229. Change of phase (state): Change of phase is the process of change from one state of the substance to another state of the substance at a constant temperature. 230. Condensation/Liquefaction: Condensation or liquefaction is the process in which a vapor phase changes to a liquid phase at a constant temperature by rejection of heat. 231. Condensation/Liquefaction point: Condensation or liquefaction point is the constant temperature at which a vapour phase changes to liquid phase. 232. Freezing or Fusion: Freezing or fusion is the process in which the liquid phase changes to solid phase at a constant temperature by rejection of heat. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 20 FALGUNI MISS 233. Freezing point: Freezing point is the constant temperature at which a liquid phase changes to a solid phase. 234. Latent heat: Latent heat is the heat energy absorbed/released during the change of phase of a substance without being recorded as a rise or fall on the thermometer. 235. Melting point: Melting point is the constant temperature at which a solid phase changes to a liquid phase. 236. Melting: Melting is the process in which a solid phase changes to a liquid phase at a constant temperature by absorption of heat. 237. Solidification: Solidification is the process in which a vapor phase directly changes to a solid phase at a constant temperature by rejection of heat. 238. Specific latent heat of fusion: Specific latent heat of fusion of ice is the amount of heat energy released by a unit mass of water at 0oC to change to ice at 0oC. 239. Specific latent heat of melting: Specific latent heat of melting of ice is the amount of heat energy absorbed by a unit mass of ice at 0oC to change to water at 0oC. 240. Specific latent heat: Specific latent heat of a phase is the amount of heat energy absorbed or liberated by a unit mass of that substance for the change in its phase at a constant temperature. 241. Sublimation: Sublimation is the process in which a solid phase directly changes to a vapour phase at a constant temperature by absorption of heat. 12. RADIOACTIVITY. (A) ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY. 242. Alpha: Alpha particle is a doubly ionized helium atom or a helium nucleus consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, tightly bound together emitted from a radioactive atom. 243. Atomic mass number/Mass number: Atomic mass number/Mass number of an element is the total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) present in the nucleus of an atom and is denoted by the symbol A. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 21 FALGUNI MISS 244. Atomic number: Atomic number of an element is the total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom and it is denoted by the symbol Z. 245. Background radiations: Background radiations are the radioactive radiations to which all gets exposed in the absence of an actual visible radioactive source. 246. Beta: Beta particles are fast moving electrons emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom. 247. Carbon dating: Carbon dating is a process to estimate the age of excavated materials, rocks, earth etc. by the study of radioactivity in the remains of dead and buried plants. 248. Gamma: Gamma radiation or Gamma ray photon or gamma emission is the energy released in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus of a radioactive atom after an alpha or a beta emission. 249. Isobars: Isobars are atoms of different elements which have the same mass number A, but differ in their atomic number Z. 250. Isotones: Isotones are atoms having different number of protons and electrons, but same number of neutrons (different Z and A but same A Z). 251. Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms of the same element which have the same atomic number Z, but differ in their mass number A. 252. Natural radioactive substances: Natural radioactive substances are the isotopes of elements having atomic number higher than 82, with n/p ratio>1. 253. Nuclear waste: Nuclear waste is the left over radioactive material after its primary use. 254. Nucleons: Nucleons are the main constituents of the nucleus and are made up of protons and neutrons. 255. Radio cardiology: Radio cardiology is a process in which, Radio sodium chloride with common NaCl is injected in the body (human) and the radioactivity of the blood at different parts of the body is tested to study blood circulation. 256. Radio isotopes: Radio isotopes are radioactive isotopes of some elements having atomic number lesser than 82 and n/p ratio </= 1. 257. Radioactive substances: Radioactive substances are those substances which disintegrates or decays by the spontaneous emission of radiations. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 22 FALGUNI MISS 258. Radioactivity: Radioactivity is a random nuclear phenomenon, in which spontaneous emission of or and radiations from the nucleus of an atom takes place during their decay. 259. Tracers: Tracers are salts of weak radioactive isotopes. (B) NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION. 260. Controlled chain reaction: A nuclear fission chain reaction is controlled by absorbing the released neutrons by means of moderators (like graphite or heavy water), where the energy released is utilised for the constructive purposes is called the controlled chain reaction. 261. Nuclear energy: Nuclear energy is the energy obtained by loss in mass of an atom during a nuclear change. 262. Nuclear fission: Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy nucleus splits into two light nuclei, nearly of the same size by bombarding it with slow moving neutrons to release tremendous amount of energy 190 MeV. 263. Nuclear fusion: Nuclear fusion is the process in which two light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus, with release of huge amount of energy. 264. Proton Proton chain reaction: Proton Proton chain reaction is the primary source of solar energy released during the fusion of hydrogen to form helium. 265. Uncontrolled chain reaction: A nuclear fission chain reaction of uranium where the entire uranium gets consumed in a short interval of time leading to explosion with release of tremendous energy is called the uncontrolled chain reaction. Falguni Thakker, 03, Sapna bldg. S.V Road, Vile Parle (w), Mumbai 56. Tel 9820428493 Page 23

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